green turtle (C. mydas) is well known for its delicious and wholesome flesh. It is imported pretty extensively from the West Indies. The C. imbricata furnishes the finest tortoise-shell of commerce, but the flesh is disagreeable. The coriaceous turtle (C. coriacea) differs in having the shell covered with a leathery skin, and three prominent ridges upon the back. It is taken, occasionally, on our coasts, as far north as cape Cod. It attains enormous dimensions, but is not applied to any useful purpose.

TORTOLA; one of the Virgin islands, near the island of Porto Rico, belonging to the English; eleven and a half miles long, and three and a half broad; lon. 64° 20′ W.; lat. 18° 20′ N. It was first settled by a party of Dutch bucaniers, who, in the year 1666, were driven out by others, who took possession in the name of the king of England, by whom they were protected; and Tortola was soon after annexed to the government of the Leeward islands. It has an unhealthy climate, and suffers much for want of water. The chief productions are sugar and cotton. The population, by the latest census, amounts to 7172, of which 477 are whites, 1296 free people of color, and 5399 slaves.

TORTURE (Latin, quæstio; French, question). The extortion of confessions from a suspected person, or of discoveries from a condemned criminal, has been common in all the nations of modern Europe. It was also practised by the ancient Romans, although only upon the bodies of slaves, until the servile period of the later empire (from the third and fourth centuries). In the provinces, however, where it had previously prevailed, as in the Oriental countries, in Macedonia, Rhodes, Athens, &c., it was retained by the provincial magistrates, even to the disregard of the persons of Roman citizens. Even the Roman civilians point out the absurdity of the practice, which could not extort truth from the stubborn, and might I easily force the weak to obtain relief by falsehood. Beccaria, with exquisite irony, puts the problem, The force of the muscles, and the sensibility of the nerves, of an innocent person, being given, to find the degree of pain necessary to make him confess himself guilty. Some writers have distinguished between the application of torture, for purposes of discovery, and for purposes of evidence, maintaining the propriety of the former, while they acknowledge the folly and cruelty of the latter. The term torture,

although improperly, is sometimes also employed to signify the torments to which condeinned criminals are sentenced, as a part of their punishment, and not for the purpose of obtaining confessions; but, in all its applications, the practice of torture shocks every principle of reason, justice and humanity. Among the Romans, slaves were tortured, when their master was found murdered, for instance, by being stretched on a machine called equuleus; their arms and legs being tied to it with ropes, they were raised upright, and their limbs were stretched by means of screws; to increase the pain, pincers, fire, &c., were applied to them. The belief of the middle ages in the immediate interference of God for the protection of innocence and the exposure of guilt, which gave rise to the ordeal, and judicial combat, contributed much to extend the use of torture, by inculcating the notion, that Divine Providence would aid the innocent to endure pains which the guilty would be unable to sustain. The church, which, in other respects, gave a new form to the system of judicial process, set the example in this practice also; and, when the old superstitious means of discovering guilt (as by trial by fire and water) lost their efficacy, torture became general in Europe. It has been said, that in England torture was never practised; but this is a great error: for, though it is true, that the law never recognised the use of torture, yet there were many instances of its employment, as late as the reigns of Elizabeth and James, when prisoners were examined, to use the expressive words of an English writer, "before torture, in torture, between torture, and after torture;" and, notwithstanding the judges, when consulted by Charles I, as to the legality of putting Felton, the assassin of Buckingham, to the rack (1628), declared that the law of England did not allow the use of torture, instances of its application occur through the reign of that prince. In France, the question préparatoire was employed during the progress of the trial, to induce the accused to confess (but his endurance of the pain without confessing did not necessarily save him from condemnation), and the question préalable, to extort from a condemned criminal, previous to execution, the confession of his accomplices, or the disclosure of so.ne circumstance which had not been explained or revealed on trial. In 1574, the count of Montgomery (q. v.) was subjected to the torture before his execution, although he had only been

the innocent cause of the death of Henry II, by an accident at a tournament. Louis XVI abolished the question préparatoire, by a decree of Aug. 24, 1780; but the question préalable subsisted till the time of the revolution. In Germany, the incapacity of the criminal judges (ignorant baillies, burgomasters, &c.) could suggest to them, notwithstanding their official obligations, no better or shorter method of proceeding, than that of beginning every examination with torture, and terminating it by capital execution; and it was the great merit of the carolina (q. v.), that it established these two important principles of criminal jurisprudence, that no man should be punished without confession, or a direct and full proof, and that no man should be tortured without strong grounds of suspicion; and the opinion of learned jurists was required to be taken as to the sufficiency of these grounds. With these restrictions, torture continued to be practised in the German states till the close of the last century, and, in some of them, is at present rather dissed than abolished. The mere threat of torture is termed territion, and is distinguished into verbal territion, in which the accused is given up to the executioner, who conducts him to the engines of torture, and describes, in the most appalling manner possible, the sufferings which he may endure, and the real territion, in which he is actually placed upon the machine, but is not subjected to torture. Thomasius, Beccaria, Voltaire, and Hommel, were the great promulgators of the better views which led to the abolition of torture. (See Criminal Law.) It is needless to say, that torture is not allowed in the U. States; the constitution provides, that no person in a criminal trial shall be compelled to be a witness against himself, and that no cruel or unusual punishment shall be inflicted.—The instruments of torture are very various; human ingenuity seems to have been exhausted in inventing the means of inflicting the most exquisite and prolonged sufferings. The following kinds of torture were chiefly employed in the Tower of London:-The rack is a large open frame of oak, under which the prisoner was laid on his back, upon the floor, with his wrists and ankles attached by cords to two rollers at the end of the frame. These rollers were moved by levers in opposite directions, till the body rose to a level with the frame; questions were then put, and, if the answers were not satisfactory, the sufferer was

gradually stretched, till the bones started from the sockets. The rack is said to have been introduced into England by the duke of Exeter, under Henry VI, and is therefore familiarly called the duke of Exeter's daughter. The scavenger's daughter is a broad hoop of iron, consisting of two parts, fastened together by a hinge. The prisoner was made to kneel on the pavement, and contract himself into as small a compass as possible. The executioner, kneeling on his shoulders, and having introduced the hoop under his legs, compressed the victim close together, till he was able to fasten the extremities over the small of the back. The time allotted to this kind of torture was an hour and a half, during which the blood commonly started, by force of the compression, from the nostrils, and sometimes from the hands and feet. Iron gauntlets, which could be contracted by a screw, were used to compress the wrists, and to suspend the prisoner in the air, from two distant points of a beam. He was placed on three pieces of wood, piled one on the other, which were successively withdrawn from under his feet, after his hands had been made fast. The little ease was a fourth kind of machine, made of so small dimensions, and so constructed, that the prisoner confined within it could neither stand, walk, sit, or lie at full length, but was compelled to draw himself up in a squatting posture, and so to remain several days. Besides these, there were manacles, thumb screws, Spanish boots, &c. Several degrees of torture are distinguished. In France there were two, the question ordinaire, and extraordinaire; and in Germany, we find mention of the first, second and third degree.

TORY. The following account of the origin of the use of this term, as a party name, so distinguished in the political history of England, is given by a contemporary whig, Defoe (q. v.), in his Review (vol. vii), published in 1711:-"The word tory is Irish, and was first used in Ireland at the time of queen Elizabeth's war, to signify a robber who preyed upon the country. In the Irish massacre (1641), you had them in great numbers, assisting in every thing that was bloody and villanous: they were such as chose to butcher brothers and sisters, fathers and mothers, the dearest friends, and nearest relations. In England, about 1680, a party of men appeared among us, who, though pretended Protestants, yet applied themselves to the ruin of their country. They began with ridiculing the

popish plot, and encouraging the Papists to revive it. They pursued their designs in banishing the duke of Monmouth, and calling home the duke of York (see James II); then in abhorring, petitioning and opposing the bill of exclusion; in giving up charters and the liberties of their country to the arbitrary will of their prince; then in murdering patriots, persecuting dissenters, and at last in setting up a popish prince on pretence of hereditary right, and tyranny on pretence of passive obedience. These men began to show themselves so like the Irish thieves and murderers aforesaid, that they quickly got the name oftories. Their real god-father was Titus Oates. On account of some one saying, at a meeting of honest people of the city, upon the occasion of the discovery of an attempt to stifle the evidence of the witnesses [to the popish plot], that he had letters from Ireland, that there were some tories to be brought over hither to murder Oates and Bedloe, the doctor [Oates] could never after this hear any man talk against the plot or witnesses (see Popish Plot) but he thought he was one of these tories, and called almost every one a tory that opposed him in discourse; till at last the word tory became popular, and it stuck so close to the party, in all their bloody proceedings, that they had no way to get it off. So at last they owned it, just as they do now the name of highflyer." (For the origin of the term whig, and the history of the two parties, sce the article Whig.) The Irish word tory is derived from toruighim (to pursue for purposes of violence); and the country was for a long time so much harassed by the depredations of the tories (or rapperees, as they were also called) that a price of £200 was set on their heads by Cromwell.

TOTALITY designates the character of a thing as one whole (consisting in the harmony of all its parts), or the body of all beings of one genus, contradistinguished to singularity and plurality. Totality is particularly used in reference to works of art, which ought to contain all those relations and ideas which are necessary to the complete expression of the artist's conceptions. (See Kant.)

TOTILA, king of the Ostrogoths in Italy, succeeded to the throne in 541, having previously distinguished himself in the war against the Romans. The confusion among the Goths at this period induced the Romans to make an attempt upon their capital, Verona; but Totila repeatedly defeated them, marched through Italy,

and formed the blockade of Naples, which was obliged to surrender, and, having reduced the provinces of Lucania, Apulia, and Calabria, led his army to the neighborhood of Rome, and posted himself at Tivoli, within eighteen miles from the capital. Justinian now recalled Belisarius from the Persian war, and sent him to its relief; but he was unable, from disparity of force, to meet the Goths in the field, and Rome fell into the possession of Totila. He indulged his Goths with free liberty of pillage, and then sent an embassy to Justinian to proffer a treaty of amity, which being rejected, he proceeded to the demolition of the city, and had destroyed a third part, when he was induced by Belisarius to desist. On quitting it, however, to march to Lucania, he carried the senators along with him; and Belisarius and his small army soon after occupied the vacant city, and began to repair the fortifications and recall the inhabitants. Upon intelligence of this event, Totila returned, and made a furious assault, in which he was repulsed with great loss; and symptoms of disobedience began to appear in his army. Having received a reinforcement, however, he made a second attempt, and, by the treachery of some Isaurian guards, was enabled to reënter Rome. On this occasion, he restored the senators to their honors, and the inhabitants to their possessions, and repaired many of the walls and buildings which he had formerly demolished. He then made proposals to Justinian a second time, which were not even listened to, and, passing over to Sicily, made himself master of that island, as also those of Sardinia and Corsica. His troops were, in the mean time, besieging Ancona; but, a naval force being sent to its relief, the siege was raised, and the recovery of Sicily soon after followed. At length Justinian recalled Belisarius, and despatched a powerful army under Narses, which advanced directly towards Rome. Totila met him in the neighborhood of that capital. A furious battle ensued, in which the Goths were entirely defeated; and their leader quitted the field with five companions. Being overtaken by a party of Gepidæ, their commander, not knowing him, ran lance through his body. With him expired (A. D. 552) the revived glory of the Goths in Italy. His character is commended, by the historians of the time, for valor, tempered by humanity and moderation, and justice.

a

TOTT, Francis, baron de, a Hungarian

nobleman, was born in France, where his father was employed as a public agent, in 1733. In 1755, he accompanied Vergennes, the French ambassador, to Constantinople, and, after seven years residence there, during which time he learnt the Turkish language, was appointed French consul in the Crimea. After remaining there several years, he withdrew to Constantinople, and obtained the favor of the grand seignior, by preparing a map of the theatre of war between Turkey and Russia, introducing improvements into the cannon founderies, &c. Peace following in 1774, he returned to France, and was employed to inspect the consular offices in the Levant. At the breaking out of the revolution, he was commander of Douai; and, being obliged to flee, on account of his anti-republican principles, he retired to Hungary, where he died in 1793. His interesting Mémoires sur les Turcs et les Tartares (1784, 4 vols., 8vo.) have been translated into English and several other European languages.

TOUCAN (ramphastos). These birds, so remarkable for the enormous size of the beak, are found exclusively in the tropical parts of America. The species are numerous, and, in their size, correspond to the raven, crow and jay. The colors of the plumage are brilliant; but black predominates, especially on the upper parts. The beak is also varied with the most beautiful tints during life; but they disappear in the stuffed specimen, unless prepared in a particular manner. The feet are short and strong, provided with two toes before and two behind; the wings short and concave; the bill is long, compressed, curved downwards towards the extremity, and has the margin of the mandibles serrated: it makes a formidable appearance, but is extremely light, weak, and of a cellular consistence. The tongue is long and slender, and remarkable for its resemblance to a feather. The toucans live in small communities, composed of six or eight individuals, and frequent the summits of the highest trees. They are continually in motion, but do not climb, notwithstanding the conformation of their feet. They feed on fruits, especially bananas, insects, and even young birds. They throw their food into the air before swallowing, in order to seize it more favorably. They nestle in hollow trees, and lay two eggs.

TOUCH. (See Feeling.)

TOULON; a seaport of France, department of the Var, on a bay of the Mediterranean, thirty miles south-east of Mar

seilles, and 220 south of Lyons; lon. 5° 56 E.; lat. 43° 7 N.; population, 30,171. It is built at the foot of a ridge of mountains which shelter it from the north, is surrounded with ramparts, ditches and bastions, and defended by a citadel and a number of forts and batteries. It consists of two parts, the old and new towns; the former ill built, but the latter in a better style, containing the principal public structures, and several straight streets. The chief public buildings in Toulon are the hotel de Ville, the hotel de l'Intendance, eight churches and three hospitals. The environs yield vines, figs, and other products of a warm climate. Toulon has long been one of the chief stations of the French navy, being on the Mediterranean what Brest is on the Atlantic. It has two ports, the old and new, communicating with each other by a canal. The old or commercial port is a basin, commodious, but not large. The new or military port is one of the finest in Europe, and is said to be capable of containing 200 sail of the line. The arsenal, situated along the side of the new port, is a very large edifice, well filled with arms and naval stores. Here are docks for shipbuilding, store houses for timber, manufactures for canvass, cordage, anchors, &c. The trade of Toulon is not extensive, being limited to the products of the vicinity, such as wine, oil, silk and fruit. In 1707, the town was bombarded by the allies, under the duke of Savoy and prince Eugene, by land, and by the English and Dutch fleets by sea, and nearly destroyed, but the assailants were obliged to raise the siege. It was occupied by the British troops in 1793; but, being besieged by the French troops under Bonaparte, the British abandoned it (Dec. 19) after burning and carrying off about half of the squadron contained in the port. The bagnio (q. v.) of Toulon is capable of receiving more than 4000 convicts sentenced to the galleys. (q. v.)'

TOULOUSE; a city of France, capital of Upper Garonne, formerly capital of Upper Languedoc, on the Garonne, near the junction of the canal of Languedoc ; lon. 1° 27′ E. ; lat. 43° 36′ N.; population, 55,319. The buildings are almost all of brick: the walls enclose a space larger than any other city in France; but there is much vacant ground. Some of the streets are tolerably broad; others are winding and irregular. There is a fine bridge over the Garonne, 810 feet long. It is an archbishop's see, and contains a cathedral, forty Catholic churches, one

Reformed church, two hospitals, a mint, a royal college, a provincial university or academy, an observatory, a museum, a public library, and a capitole, or townhouse. The situation of Toulouse is advantageous; but the commerce and manufactures are inconsiderable. Toulouse is an ancient town: in the sixth century, it was the capital of the Visigoths (see Goths), and afterwards became the residence of the counts of Toulouse, till the union of Languedoc with France. In 1814, Soult was defeated here by Wellington, and the town was taken by the English (April 11). The archbishop of Toulouse, minister of Louis XVI, was Loménie de Brienne. (q. v.)

TOUR AND TAXIS. (See Thurn and Taxis.)

angles deeply truncated, so as to extinguish the lateral edges, and convert the rhomboid into a prism with trihedral_terminations. This prism is sometimes eight or ten times longer than thick; instead of six sides, it often has twelve, or a much greater number, and rarely becomes, through the multiplication of lateral faces, nearly cylindrical. The trihedral summits have their apices truncated also, and their edges variously bevelled; cleavage is rarely visible, and cannot be determined with certainty; fracture imperfect conchoidal, or uneven. The sides of the prism are deeply striated longitudinally: the terminal faces are generally smooth. Lustre vitreous; color brown, green, blue, red, white, frequently black, generally dark; streak white; transparent to opaque; less transparent, if viewed in a direction parallel to the axis, than perpendicular to it, and generally presents different colors in these directions; hard

TOURMALINE; one of the most interesting species in the mineral kingdom, on account of the forms of its crystals, its various and rich colors, its electrical properties, and its chemical composition. The general form of its crystals is a prism of three, six or more sides, variously terminated at one or both extremities; when at both, the two terminations being dissimilar. The primary form is an obtuse rhomboid of 133° 50′; and the secondary crystals, or occurring forms, may be conceived of by supposing the lateral solid

gravity 3.07. Besides the crystals, tourmaline is found massive, the composition being usually columnar; individuals of various sizes, thin, straight, parallel or divergent. Tourmaline and schorl, which were once distinguished as two particular species, differ only in their colors and transparency. The varieties of green, blue, red, brown and white color, and such in general as are not perfectly black, were included under tourmaline; while the black and opaque ones constituted schorl. The red variety is sometimes called rubellite, and the blue one, indicolite. The composition of the species is as follows:

5.74

00.00

0.60

Oxide of iron,

Oxide of manganese

Potash,

2.45

0.00 .

Those which contain lithia intumesce before the blow-pipe, and assume a slaggy appearance, but do not melt; those which contain soda intumesce still more, but likewise do not melt, except on the edges; those containing lime intumesce very much, and melt into a white slag. Long crys

tals of tourmaline assume, by heat, opposite kinds of electricity at their opposite extremities; and transparent pieces which have been cut and polished are electrical at common temperatures without friction or pressure. Tourmaline is a very abundant mineral in granitic