Ireland, of Catholic parents. He discarded the Roman faith before he had attained the age of sixteen, and finished his education at the universities of Glasgow and Edinburgh. He then went to England, where he was introduced to some dissenting families, who enabled him to pursue his studies for two years more at Leyden. Returning to England, he began the work, published in 1696, under the title of Christianity not Mysterious, which was presented by the grand jury of Middlesex. To withdraw himself from obloquy, he visited his native country, where he was assailed with even greater violence than in England; and the Irish parliament not only voted his book to be burned by the hangman, but ordered him to be prosecuted by the attorneygeneral. He was therefore obliged to quit Ireland; and, soon after his arrival in London, he published a life of Milton, and a treatise entitled Amyntor, in which he assailed the authenticity of the received canon of Scripture. In 1699, he published a life of Denzil lord Holles, and in the following year, an edition of Harrington's Oceana. In 1718, appeared his work entitled Nazarenus, or Jewish, Gentile, and Mahometan Christianity, in which he stated his own views of primitive Christianity. This was followed (1720) by a Latin tract, called Pantheisticon, which subjected him to the charge of atheism, and by Tetradymnus, in four parts, the second of which, on the exoteric and esoteric philosophy of the ancients, is deemed one of his most learned and valuable productions. In the conclusion of this work, he professed his preference of the Christian religion, pure and unmixed, to all others. He died in 1722, in the fifty-third year of his age. His posthumous works were published in two volumes, octavo, 1726, and again in 1747, with an account of his life and writings by Des Maizeaux.

TOLEDO (anciently Toletum); a city of Spain, in New Castile, capital of a province, of the same name, on the Tagus; thirty-two miles south-west of Madrid; lon. 4° 11' W.; lat. 39° 53′ N.; population, 25,000. It is the see of an archbishop, who is primate of Spain, and who had formerly a revenue of $500,000; but it was appropriated to the public in 1820. The city is situated on the sides of a steep hill, surrounded by lofty mountains, and the environs are rocky and unproductive. It contains an alcazar or Moorish palace, now an hospital, a Gothic cathedral, twenty-five churches, thirty-eight convents and

monasteries, and fourteen hospitals. The streets are narrow and steep, and the houses crowded. Here was a university, founded in 1470, suppressed in 1807. The manufactures consist of woollens, linens, silk, &c. The Toledo swordblades, formerly very noted, are manufactured in a large building on the Tagus. The secret of tempering them is said to have been recovered; and they fetch a high price. Toledo is a place of great antiquity, much celebrated in the history of Spain, and was successively the seat of government under the Goths, the Moors, and the kings of Castile.

TOLENTINO; a small town in the States of the Church, where a treaty of peace was concluded between general Bonaparte and the papal court, Feb. 19, 1797. (See Pius VI.)

TOLERATION, in politics; a word which indicates the misconception so long entertained respecting the right of political interference in the religious belief and worship of individuals. Every man is as much entitled to liberty of opinion on religious subjects as on any other, and has a right to adopt any mode of worship that does not disturb the peace of society. This truth, plain as it seems to a reflecting man of the present day, is one which men have attained, as they have many other important truths, only by slow degrees and bitter experience; and, in fact, few governments act fully upon this principle even now. The historian finds that intolerance has been the most deadly bane to intellectual progress. (See Religious Liberty.) It is remarkable that England, which has been peculiarly tolerant towards dissenting sects as far as concerned their religious exercises, has, at the same time, excluded them from many civil rights. No dissenter can be admitted, even at this day, into the universities of Oxford or Cambridge.

TOLLENDAL. (See Lally-Tollendal.)
TOLTECS. (See Mexico.)

TOMATO, OF LOVE-APPLE (Solanum lycopersicum). This plant belongs to the same genus with the potato and egg-plant. It was originally brought from South America, but is now cultivated in many parts of the globe, for the sake of its large, variously shaped, scarlet or orange fruit, which many esteem a great luxury. These are used in sauces, stewing, and soups, and, when boiled and seasoned with pepper and salt, make an excellent sauce for fish, meat, &c. In warmer climates, they possess more acidity and briskness, and are therefore more grateful to the

palate. The plant is a tender herbaceous annual, of rank growth, weak, decumbent, fetid, glutinous and downy: the leaves somewhat resemble those of the potato, but the flowers are yellow, and disposed in large divided bunches: the fruit is pendulous, shining, and very ornamental. The tomato is one of the most common articles in Italian cookery, and its use is, at the present time, rapidly increasing in England. It is cultivated to considerable extent near London, against walls and artificial banks, being raised on a hot-bed, and transplanted like other tender annuals. With us, it is particularly cultivated in our southern and middle states.

TOMB (from the Greek word Tupẞos). This term includes both the grave and the monument erected over it. In many countries of antiquity, it was customary to burn the bodies of the dead, and to collect the ashes into an urn, which was deposited in a tomb. Among the Greeks, these tombs were generally constructed outside the walls of the cities, with the exception of such as were raised to the founders of the place or to heroes. In Campania, several tombs of the ancient inhabitants have been discovered, containing beautiful Grecian vases (improperly called Etruscan), of which Mr. Hamilton formed two collections, the first published by D'Ancarville, the second by Tischbein. The Campanian tombs were formed by an enclosure of cut stones, and covered with a sort of roo, of flagstones, shelving on both sides. The dead body was stretched on the ground, the feet turned towards the entrance of the sepulchre, and the head ranged against the wall, from which were suspended, by bronze nails, vases of terra cotta, whilst others of a similar kind were disposed around the body. In the plains of Etruria are also many shallow sepulchral grottoes scooped out of the living rock. These cells or sepulchres receive the daylight only through an opening placed in the middle of the vault, and which communicates with the superficies of the mountain or rock. The interior is often ornamented with paintings. The Romans designated by sepulchrum the tomb wherein the bodies or the ashes of the defunct were deposited, also the magnificent monuments (mausolea), sepulchral arches, destined to the great and the rich. Tombs where funeral rites were celebrated, yet without depositing the body, were called cenotaphs. Persons of high rank had sometimes, in their palaces, sepulchral vaults, where were deposited, in different urns, the ashes

of their forefathers. The pyramid of Cestius, at Rome, constructed of Parian marble, and which contained a chamber ornamented with beautiful paintings, was the tomb of an individual surnamed Cestius, one of the septemviri epulones. After the decline of the arts, this species of architecture was much neglected, the tombs becoming simply masses of large stones, upon which were engraved rude effigies of the deceased, and inscriptions stating his age and the circumstances of his death, &c. Sometimes, for marble or stone, plates of copper were substituted, rarely enamelled, but generally engraved. The dead person is here represented as clad in the habit commonly worn by him when living; his hands are joined as in the act of prayer; and two angels are, in most instances, placed near the cushion upon which his head reposes, to indicate his admission into heaven. The revival of art brought improvements in the construction of tombs. On the splendid tomb of Julius II, Michael Angelo exercised his surpassing talent. (See Sarcophagus ; also Les Monumens de la Monarchie Française, by Montfaucon; Les Antiquités Nationales, by A. L. Millin (5 vols., folio, or 5 vols., 4to.); Sepulchral Monuments (3 vols., folio), &c. &c.

TOMBECKBEE, the western branch of Mobile river, in Alabama, rises in the ridges that separate its waters and those of the Tennessee, in the northern parts of the state, and receives some of its branches from a range that diverges from the Tennessee hills, and runs south along the state of Mississippi. It receives in its progress several considerable streams from the state of Mississippi on the west side. It meanders through the Indian country and a tract purchased by French immigrants. Eighty miles above St. Stephens, it receives the Black Warrior, to which place small sea vessels ascend. In moderate stages of the water, it affords steam-boat navigation to Tuscaloosa, 320 miles from Mobile. The lands on its banks are exceedingly fertile.

TOMBUCTOO. (See Timbuctoo.)
TOмCOD. (See Cod.)

TOмSK; a government of Russia, in Siberia, bounded north by Yeniseisk, east by Irkutsk, south by Chinese Tartary, and west by Tobolsk; population, 352,000; square miles, 300,000. (See Siberia.) The capital, of the same name, is situated on the Tom, 540 miles east of Tobolsk ; lon. 85° 21' E.; lat. 56° 30′ N.; population, 12,000. It contains five churches and two convents, is extremely well situated for commerce, and the inhabitants

carry on a considerable trade. It lies in the road from the towns in the eastern and northern parts of Siberia, and on the great line of rivers that connect Tobolsk with the Chinese frontier; so that all caravans going to and from China pass every year through this town, besides a caravan or two going from the country of the Calmucks. Tomsk is represented as much behind Tobolsk and Irkutsk in civilization, and the inhabitants are excessively addicted to intoxication.

TONE (Greek Tovos, from TEw, to stretch or expand), in painting; a term used chiefly in coloring, to express the prevailing hue. Thus we say this picture is of lull tone, of a lively tone, of a soft tone, of a clear tone, &c. To heighten the tone of a work, is to render the colors more vivid, and, in some instances, the masses more decided and the figures more striking. The word tone, in relation to chiaroscuro, expresses the degree of brightness or intensity. Tone is not precisely synonymous with tint; the latter relating rather to the mixture of colors, and the former to their effect.

TONE, KEY, SCALE, SYSTEM OF TONES. Tone, in music, signifies a sound considered in the relations of height or depth; also each particular sound in our musical system. The tone, in this fundamental sense, is determined by the greater or less quickness of a uniform series of vibrations in a sonorous body. Musical tones differ from those of common speech chiefly by being more prolonged, so as to give the ear a more decided perception of their height, formation, and relations to each other. (For the production and propagation of sounds, in general, see Acoustics.) The difference of one tone from another, in respect to height or depth, forms the interval. (q. v.) But as music deals only with those which are capable of producing harmony, the whole body of sounds used in music has been brought into a system, which exhibits their different height and depth, in regular order. The compass of tones is not indefinite, because the ear is unable to perceive a tone, when the vibrations of the body producing the sound are either excessively quick or slow; yet they are not limited to a definite number. This measured series of tones is an invention of modern times, since the nature of sounds has been accurately investigated, and their relations settled by musical instruments. Man in a state of nature, or a state but little removed from this, is guided only by his feelings, in the 25

VOL. XII.

production of tones, and knows nothing of a regulated arrangement; hence it is so difficult to adapt the songs of savages to our diatonic system. As instruments do not, like the human voice, produce all the various tones without particular contrivances, those who first endeavored to produce a certain tune by means of instruments, were obliged to assign to them, as it were, certain tones, and arrange these in regular order; strings were to be tuned in a certain way, for producing certain sounds; a distinct length was to be given to them, and holes were to be made at certain distances in wind instruments. The relations of tones first perceived by the ear, were undoubtedly those which were thus fixed. Thus the fable says, that Hermes strung the lyre with four strings, and tuned them in the proportion of the fourth, fifth and octave; and, probably, these tones were sufficient for the simplest accompaniment of the voice. By degrees the other tones of the octave were added. In this first system, which embraced four strings or tones, were comprehended two fourths, forming the two extreme tones, as a dea: the lowest tone was called A. Hence this system, or the division of tones according to fourths, is called tetrachord. When the tones were increased in number, it seems to have been done also by fourths; so that, e. g. to the chord d the fourth g was given, and to e (descending) the fourth b. Now g had not yet its pure fourth; but, in order not to go beyond the octave, the same was taken within the octave from g downward: this received the fourth f and thus the whole octave was formed, or a series of tones, extending from a fundamental tone to its octave, which is called the scale. The scale thus formed consisted of the tones

A B C D E F Ga which had the proportions

1 8 27 3 2 81 9 1

9 32 4 3 128 16 2 When the fourths were divided, in different ways, into smaller intervals, the genera of tones originated, viz. 1. The enharmonic (q. v.); 2. the chromatic (q. v.); 3. the diatonic, in which whole and half degrees alone appear. The modern diatonic system is that division of tones, according to which the octave is divided into seven tones, consisting of five entire and two half degrees (also called tones; hence tone often stands for the interval of a whole tone), and in which we never proceed by smaller divisions

ured équally, by which, consequently, all the perfect fifths lose something of their original purity, which is added to the fourths, and also a major third is tuned as much too high as the others. The uneven temperament is that in which some fifths and thirds are so tuned that some are a little higher, some a little lower than perfect. The chief harmony, or the chief concord, of a tone can be twofold, according as it has a major or minor third; and this is called, in a narrower sense, key, or mode, viz. in the first case, the sharp or greater third, in the second, the flat or smaller third. Hence there are, in modern music, twenty-four scales or keys in the wider sense (genera of tones capable of being connected in a musical composition, in relation to a fundamental tone). Each flat and sharp key has its peculiar character: the latter serves more particularly for the expression of gay and lively; the former, of soft and melancholy feelings. Uncivilized nations prefer the flat keys. Every scale has, also, according to its fundamental tone, and its situation and relations to the whole system, its peculiar character, so as to be particularly fit for the expres

sion of certain emotions. This point is connected with the fact, that the flat and sharp keys are not entirely equal in all the tones, as neither the thirds nor the sixths are equal. This advantage of difference of the scale does not take place in the even temperament, in which the scales of C major and A minor are merely repeated in the other tones. The following is a view of all the scales in both keys, in regard to which, we must observe, 1. that in the sharp key the same tones are played as well ascending as descending, only in reversed order; but in the flat key the major sixth and seventh are played in ascending; the latter in order to have a leading tone (sharp seventh), the former to avoid the unharmonic progression of the enlarged second; wherefore more signs of transposition appear in the ascending series; 2. that both scales contain an octave of five whole and two half-tones, and that the different situation of the latter (which, with the ancients, could not be transposed into all tones), with the changes thus made in the degrees of perfectness, produce different shades or qualities in the scales.

In this table are enumerated sixteen sharp keys; but as cis and des, dis and es, as and gis, ges and fis, can be represented on most instruments (keyed instru

* The letter H is used in German music instead of B. (See p. 290, col. i.)

This scale is considered as the model. It must be observed here that the Italians and French ex

press the tones contained in it by the syllables ut (or do), re, mi, fa, sol, la, si. (See Solfeggio.)

ments) only by one tone, and as compositions are rarely written in the keys of cis, dis, and gis, on account of the difficulty of playing where the sharps amount to

The fundamental tone and octave have but one sharp.

G sharp has a double sharp, which has the value of two single ones. The latter is true also of the subsequent scales.