justice of the state of Pennsylvania, was born August 12, 1756, in Talbot county, Maryland, to which province his paternal grandfather had emigrated from England, in 1662. In 1762, his family removed to Philadelphia, and, in the succeeding year, he was placed at the academy, where he remained until 1769, when he entered the college. He was distinguished for his attainments in classical literature, and, after receiving his bachelor's degree, continued for some time to study it under doctor Allison. In February, 1772, he began the study of the law in Philadelphia, and pursued it until 1776, when his father removed again to his estate in Maryland. From that time until the summer of 1779, he lived in great retirement, prosecuting his favorite studies-jurisprudence, history and the belles-lettres. At the close of the revolutionary war, in 1783, he was admitted to the bar, and soon acquired eminence. In the midst of a successful and lucrative practice, he was three times successively elected to serve as a member of the legislature of Maryland, in the years 1788-89-90. In 1789, he was also one of the electors appointed to choose the first president under the federal constitution. In 1791, he was elected a member of the state senate, in which station he remained until 1793, when he removed to Philadelphia. March 3, 1801, he was appointed chief judge of the circuit court of the U. States, for the Pennsylvania circuit. In a year, however, the law which erected this court was repealed, and Mr. Tilghman resumed his duties as an advocate. In July, 1805, he was appointed president of the court of common pleas, in the first district, and, in the beginning of 1806, was made chief justice of the supreme court of the statean office which he retained until his decease, April 30, 1827. Mr. Tilghman's powers, as an advocate, were highly respectable; but, in the capacity of judge, he was 'eminent, owing to his singular clearness and firmness of mind, his veneration for the law, his untiring industry, and perspicuous diction, combined with his general attainments and fine moral qualities. Pennsylvania owes him a great debt of gratitude, for the accomplishment of the incorporation of the principles of scientific equity with the law of the state, or rather for the repeated recognition from the bench, that, with few exceptions, they constitute an inseparable portion of the law.

TILLEMONT, Louis Sebastian le Nain de, an eminent historian, born at Paris, in

1637, was the son of a master of requests, and received his education at the Port Royal. He assumed the name of Tillemont on entering the priesthood, devoted himself to study, and, by his extraordinary industry and accuracy of research, gained a high reputation as a historical writer. His death took place in 1698. He was the author of Mémoires pour servir à l'Histoire Ecclésiastique des six premiers Sicles (16 vols., 4to., 1693—1712), and Histoire des Empereurs et des autres Princes qui ont regné durant les six premiers Siècles de l'Eglise (6 vols., 4to., 1690—1738).

TILLER. (See Helm.)

TILLOCH, Alexander, LL. D., the son of a tobacconist of Glasgow, born in 1759, was intended by his father to follow his own business, and taken into his warehouse; but a strong bias towards mechanical and scientific pursuits soon diverted his attention from commercial pursuits. In 1736, a jeweller of Edinburgh, named Ged, had devised the art of printing from plates, and produced an edition of Sallust so printed; but the art was undervalued, and perished with him. Doctor Tilloch revived it, and carried it to the state of practical utility which it now exhibits, having himself again made the discovery without any previous acquaintance with Ged's attempts. In this new process, Mr. Foulis of Glasgow, a printer, joined him; and a patent in their names was taken out, both in England and Scotland. Circumstances, however, induced them to lay aside the business for a time; and it never was renewed by them as a speculation. In 1787, doctor Tilloch removed to London, and purchased the Star, an evening paper, which he continued to edit till within four years of his death. In June, 1797, he projected and established the Philosophical Magazine, sixty-five volumes of which are now before the public; and only fifteen days before his death, he had obtained a patent for an improvement on the steam-engine. The last work which he was engaged to superintend, was the Mechanics' Oracle, published in numbers at the Caxton press. In his religious opinions, doctor Tilloch was a dissenter from the established church, and preached occasionally. He died in 1825.

TILLOTSON, John, an English prelate, son of a clothier, near Halifax, was born in 1630. His father, a strict Calvinist, brought up his son in the same principles, and sent him a pensioner to Clare hall, Cambridge, of which he was elected a

fellow in 1651. It is not known when he entered into orders; but his first sermon which appeared in print is dated 1661, at which time he was still among the Presbyterians. When the act of uniformity passed, in the following year, he submitted to it, and, becoming celebrated for his pulpit oratory, was chosen preacher to the society of Lincoln's inn. In 1666, he took the degree of D. D., and was made king's chaplain, and presented to a prebend of Canterbury. When Charles II, in 1672, issued a declaration for liberty of conscience, for the purpose of favoring the Roman Catholics, he preached strongly against it, but was, nevertheless, advanced to the deanery of Canterbury, and soon after presented to a prebend in St. Paul's. Popery was so much the object of his aversion, that, in a sermon preached before the king, in 1680, he expressed sentiments of intolerance which he himself acknowledged to his friends could not be defended. He warmly promoted the exclusion bill against the duke of York, and refused to sign the address of the London clergy to the king, on his declaration that he would not consent to it. At the execution of lord William Russel, he attended with doctor Burnet; and, though afterwards decided friends to the revolution, both these divines urged that nobleman to acknowledge the unlawfulness of resistance. On the accomplishment of the revolution, he was taken into favor by king William; and, in 1689, he was appointed clerk of the closet to that sovereign, and subsequently permitted to exchange the deanery of Canterbury for that of St. Paul's. On the refusal of archbishop Sancroft to take the oaths to the new government, he was appointed to exercise the archiepiscopal jurisdiction during the suspension of that prelate; and, in 1691, after exhibiting the greatest reluctance, he was induced to accept the archbishopric itself. He had previously formed a scheme for the comprehension of the Presbyterians within the pale of the church, which had been rejected by the convocation. He had also failed in another design for forming a new book of homilies; and a sermon which he preached before the queen, against the absolute eternity of hell torments, still further involved him with the advocates of orthodoxy. When, therefore, he accepted the primacy, a large party assailed him with great animosity; and he was reproached with the inconsistency of his own conduct with the doctrine he had advanced to lord William Russel. He

bore these attacks in silence, and even prevented some prosecutions for libel against him, directed by the crown. He was also charged with Socinianism; in answer to which he republished four of his sermons on the Incarnation and Divinity of our Savior. There appears to have been no other ground for that imputation. than that he defended Christianity on rational grounds, and corresponded with such men as Limborch, Locke and Le Clerc; to which reason doctor Jortin adds, that he had broken an ancient and fundamental rule of controversial theology--"Allow not an adversary either to have common sense or common honesty." He now exerted himself to advance the respectability of the church, and, among other things, wished to correct the evils arising from non-residence. He was, however, counteracted in all his endeavors, by the most perverse opposition, which rendered his high station a scene of much more disgust than gratification, and, soon after, died of a paralytic stroke, in 1694. He left his widow nothing but the copyrigl.t of his sermons. Doctor Tillotson was open, sincere, benevolent and forgiving; and although, in some points, too compliant, and liable to the charge of inconsistency, his intentions seem to have been pure and disinterested. His sermons maintain a place among the most popular of that class of compositions in the English language, displaying great copiousness of thought and expres sion, and abounding in passages which strongly impress the mind. His sermons are doubtless much less read than formerly, but can scarcely fail of remaining a permanent part of the branch of English literature to which they belong.

TILLY, John Tzerklas, count of, one of the most celebrated generals of the seventeenth century, was born in 1559, in Walloon Brabant, at the castle of Tilly. He was, in his youth, a Jesuit. After being educated strictly and fanatically, he entered the Spanish, the Austrian, and at last the Bavarian service. Under Alva and other commanders, he formed his military talents, and became accustomed to silent obedience, to a stern pursuit of his objects without regarding the calls of mercy, and to the destruction of heretics. He rose, by degrees, to the command of the army of the league, in the thirty years' war. (q. v.) He distinguished himself much as a general; and when, in 1630, Wallenstein was obliged to give up the command, Tilly was appointed generalissimo of the imperial troops. His most celebrated ex

ploit is the bloody sack of Magdeburg, May 10 1631; and history has few pages so black as those on which the atrocities of Isolani's Croats and Pappenheim's Walloons are recorded. Some officers, at length, implored Tilly to put a stop to the horrible outrages. He coldly replied, "Come back within an hour, and I will then see what is to be done. The soldier ought to have some reward for his labors and dangers." On the 14th, he entered the burned and plundered city in triumph. "Since the destruction of Troy and Jerusalem, no such victory has taken place," he wrote to his master. Gustavus Adolphus met him at Breitenfeld, September 7, and Tilly, who had been thirty-six times victorious, was now entirely beaten, and was himself wounded. In a subsequent engagement with the Swedes, on the Lech, a cannon ball shattered his thigh, and he died in a few days, April 30, 1632. His face was repulsive; his manners always monastic, even amidst the dissoluteness of a camp of that time. He never accepted money, and left but a small fortune. He refused the grant of the principality of Kalemberg. As a soldier, he was prompt, cunning and cruel.

TILSIT; a town of East Prussia, in Gumbinnen, a capital of a circle; fifty miles north-east of Königsberg, fifty southsouth-east of Memel; lon. 21° 56′ E.; lat. 55° 5' N.; population, 8248. It is situated on two rivers, the Niemen (here called the Memel) and the small river Tilse, which separates the town from the castle. It is a commercial town, well built, and contains an hospital, two Lutheran churches, and a provincial school. The chief articles of export are corn, wax, salt, salted provisions, hats and leather. The circle of Tilsit is a level and fertile tract, lying on the Curische-Haff.

Peace of Tilsit. The battle of Friedland (q. v.) on June 14, 1807, terminated in the total rout of the Russian forces, and the annihilation of Prussia's last hope. June 18, when the French were already on the Niemen, the emperor Alexander sent proposals for an armistice to the grand duke of Berg, which Napoleon readily accepted. The battles of Eylau and Friedland, continual skirmishes, and the siege of Dantzic, had much weakened the French army; and Napoleon was obliged to keep an attentive eye upon Austria, which, in case of his defeat, would not have failed to attack him. At the same time, the Russian cabinet complained of inactivity on the part of the English, so that the French and Russian

monarchs were the more readily disposed to come to terms. They met, June 25, on a raft built for the purpose on the Niemen, in presence of the two armies. Tilsit was declared, by Napoleon, neutral, and the emperors and the king of Prussia had their lead-quarters there, from the 28th, in order to expedite the negotiations for peace. The queen of Prussia, at the invitation of Napoleon, also repaired to Tilsit. July 7, peace was concluded between Napoleon and Alexander, by Talleyrand, Kurakin, and Labanoff Rostoffski, Kalckreuth and Golz. The question was only respecting the territory of the king of Prussia, who was obliged to cede one half of his country in order to retain the other, under the hardest conditions, which it was almost impossible to fulfil By the terms of the peace, it was settled, 1. that the provinces torn from Poland by Prussia, in 1793 and 1795, should form a new duchy of Warsaw; 2. that Dantzic, with a territory two leagues in circuit, should be made a free city, under the protection of Prussia and Saxony; 3. that the king of Saxony, made duke of Warsaw, should have a military road to his new state, through Silesia; 4. that the dukes of Mecklenburg, Oldenburg and Coburg should be reinstated, by the emperor of the French, and, on the other hand, his brother Jerome should be acknowledged, by Alexander, as king of Westphalia, Joseph as king of Naples, Louis as king of Holland; and, 5. that the kingdom of Westphalia should be formed of the provinces ceded by Prussia, situated on the left bank of the Elbe, together with Brunswick, Hessia, &c. At the same time, 6. Alexander ceded the lordship of Jever to Holland, and promised, 7. to withdraw his troops from Moldavia and Walachia, and conclude peace with the Porte, under Napoleon's mediation. On the other hand, Russia received of the Prussian provinces, that of Bialystock, 4360 square miles, with 184,000 inhabitants. Moreover, the Russians evacuated Cattaro in consequence of the peace of Tilsit. In a secret article, Russia promised to unite with France against England, to secure the independence of neutral flags, and to induce the courts of Stockholm, Copenhagen and Lisbon to concur in the same arrangement. The terms of the peace between Napoleon and Frederic William III of Prussia, were contained, essentially, in that just described. Prussia was to cede the above-mentioned Polish provinces, and all the provinces between the Elbe and Rhine, to Ñapoleon,

the circle of Cottbus to Saxony, and to close her ports against England. July 9, the peace with Prussia was signed, and count Kalckreuth agreed, with the prince of Neufchatel, that all Prussia should be evacuated by Oct. 1, if the heavy contributions should be paid up to that time, or security satisfactory to the intendant-general should be given for the payment. These terms could not be fulfilled, and Prussia continued a prey to French commissioners until it compounded for the impositions laid on it, after the lapse of a year, by the payment of 120,000,000 francs. Yet it remained continually exposed to attack on the part of the French, who occupied three fortresses on the Oder (Glogau, Kustrin, and Stettin), and from their allied states (Warsaw, Saxony and Westphalia), until, in 1813, its situation was changed. In the treaty with Russia, it was said, "The king of Prussia receives back half of his states at the intercession of the emperor of Russia." In 1822, Lewis Goldsmith published the secret articles of the peace of Tilsit, or rather the secret agreements made at the same. According to these, Russia was to have European Turkey; a prince of Napoleon's family was to receive the crown of Spain and Portugal; the temporal power of the pope was to cease; France to occupy the African States; Malta and Egypt to belong again to France; France to be supported by Russia in the conquest of Gibraltar; the Mediterranean to be open only to French, Russian, Spanish and Italian vessels; and Denmark to be indemnified by the Hanse towns in Northern Germany, if she would employ her fleet against England, &c.

TILT-HAMMER; a large and heavy hammer, put in motion by a water-wheel or steam-engine. Cogs being brought to bear on the tail of the hammer, its depression causes the head to be elevated, which, when liberated, falls with considerable force by its own specific gravity. Tiltmills work on the same principle.

TILTING OF STEEL is the process by which blistered steel is rendered ductile. This is done by placing it under the tilt hammer.

TIMEUS, of Locri, in Magna Græcia; a Pythagorean philosopher, and a teacher of Plato, who has called one of his dialogues by his name. Timæus employed himself chiefly in the study of nature. The genuineness of the work which goes under his name (On Nature and the Soul of the World) is doubted by Meiners, though defended by Tiedemann. It is

inserted in Stanley's History of Philosophy. Meiners considers it merely as an abridgment of Plato's Timæus.

TIMAR and SIAMET are military fiefs in Turkey. (See Zaim.)

TIMBER. A vast expense is every year occasioned by the premature decay of wood, employed in ships and other structures, which are exposed to vicissitudes of weather, and especially if they are subjected to the influence of warmth combined with moisture. Trees of different species vary greatly in the durability of their wood; yet none of the species commonly employed are capable of withstanding, for many years, the effect of unfavorable exposures and situations. The decay of timber is sometimes superficial and soraetimes internal. In the former case, the outside of the wood first perishes, and crumbles away, and successive strata are decomposed, before the internal parts become unsound. In the other species, which is distinguished by the naine of the dry rot, the disease begins in the interior substance of the wood, particularly of that which has not been well seasoned, and spreads outwardly, causing the whole mass to swell, crack, and exhale a musty odor. Different fungous vegetables sprout out of its substance; the wood loses its strength, and crumbles, finally, into a mass of dust. This disease prevails most in a warm, moist, and confined atmosphere, such as frequently exists in the interior of ships, and in the cellars and foundations of houses. Its destructive effects in ships of war have given rise, of late, to numerous publications. Some writers consider that the dry rot is not essentially different from the more common kinds of decay; but there seems to be sufficient reason for the distinction which has usually been drawn. The prevention of the evil has been attempted in various ways, and with some degree of success.-Felling. It is agreed by most writers that the sap of vegetables is the great cause of their fermentation and decay. Hence it appears desirable, if there is any season in which the trunk of a tree is less charged with sap than at others, that this time should be selected for felling it. The middle of summer and the middle of winter are, undoubtedly, the periods when the wood contains least sap. In the months of spring and autumn, in which the roots prepare sap, but no leaves exist to expend it, the trunk is overcharged with sap; and in many trees, as the maple and birch, sap will flow out at these seasons, if the trunk is wounded.

In summer, on the contrary, when the leaves are out, the sap is rapidly expended; and in winter, when the roots are dormant, it is sparingly produced; so that no surplus of this fluid apparently exists. From reasoning a priori, it would seem that no treatment would be so effectual in getting rid of the greatest quantity of sap as to girdle the tree, by cutting away a ring of alburnum, in the early part of summer, thus putting a stop to the further ascent of the sap, and then to suffer it to stand until the leaves should have expended, by their growth, or transpiration, all the fluid which could be extracted by them, previously to the death of the tree.* The wood would thus, probably, be found in the driest state, to which any treatment could reduce it in the living state. Buffon has recommended stripping the trees of their bark in spring, and felling them in the subsequent autumn. This method is said to harden the alburnum; but the cause is not very apparent, nor is the success at all certain.-Seasoning. At whatever period timber is felled, it requires to be thoroughly seasoned before it is fit for the purposes of carpentry. The object of seasoning is partly to evaporate as much of the sap as possible, and thus to prevent its influence' in causing decomposition, and partly to reduce the dimensions of the wood, so that it may be used without inconvenience from its further shrinking. Timber seasons best when placed in dry situations, where the air has a free circulation round it. Gradual drying is considered a better preservative of wood than a sudden exposure to warmth, even of the sun; for warmth, abruptly applied, causes cracks and flaws, from the sudden and unequal expansion produced in different parts. Two or three years' seasoning is requisite to produce tightness and durability in the wood work of buildings. It must be observed that seasoning in the common way only removes a portion of the aqueous and volatile matter from the wood. The extractive, and other soluble portions, still remain, and are liable to ferment, though in a less degree, whenever the wood reabsorbs moisture. Such, indeed, is the force of capillary attraction, that wood, exposed to the atmosphere in our climate, never gives up all its moisture.-Preservation of Timber. When wood is to be kept in a dry situation, as in the interior of houses, no other preparation is necessary than that of thorough seasoning. But when it is to be

* See McWilliam on the Dry Rot, pp. 151 and 158.

exposed to the vicissitudes of weather, and, still more, when it is to remain in a warm and moist atmosphere, its preserva-` tion often becomes extremely difficult. Numerous experiments have been made, and many volumes written, upon the preservation of timber, and the prevention of the dry rot; but the subject is not yet brought to a satisfactory conclusion.` The methods which have hitherto been found most successful, consist in extracting the sap, in excluding moisture, and in impregnating the vessels of the wood with antiseptic substances. For extracting the sap, the process of water seasoning is recommended. It consists in immersing the green timber in clear water for about two weeks, after which it is taken out, and seasoned in the usual manner. A great part of the sap, together with the soluble and fermentable matter, is said to be dissolved or removed by this process. Running water is more effectual than that which is stagnant. It is necessary that the timber should be sunk, so as to be completely under water, since nothing is more destructive to wood than partial immersion. Mr. Langtont has proposed to extract the sap by means of an air-pump, the timber being enclosed in tight cases, with a' temperature somewhat elevated, and the sap being discharged in vapor by the operation of the pump. It appears extremely probable, that if trees were felled in summer, and the buts immediately placed in water without removing the branches, a great part of their sap would be expended by the vegetative process alone, and replaced by water. It is well known that branches of plants, if inserted in water, continue, for some days, to grow, to transpire, and to perform their other functions. This they probably do at the expense of the sap, or assimilated fluid, which was previously in them, while they replace it by the water they consume. This state of things continues until the juices are too far diluted to be capable of any longer sustaining life.-The charring of timber, by scorching or burning its outside, is commonly supposed to increase its durability; but, on this subject, the results of experiment do not agree. Charcoal is one of the most durable of vegetable substances; but the conversion of the surface of wood into charcoal does not necessarily alter the character of the interior part. As far, however, as it may operate in excluding worms, and arresting the spreading of an infectious decay,

+ Repertory of Arts, 1826. Franklin Journal, ii. and vi.