not know; but our ignorance of its real use furnishes no support to the conjectural theory which the preceding facts prove to be erroneous, no less than some others connected with cleanliness which we shall now mention.

The Mohammedan Arabs of the desert, when they cannot procure water to perform the stated ablutions enjoined by the Koran, have recourse to dry sand, with which they rub their bodies as a substitute*; and it is no doubt as a substitute for washing that some birds, thence called pulverizers (Pulvinatores), are fond of squatting in dust and hustling it into their feathers. Caged larks may thus be seen rubbing their breasts amongst the dry mould at the side of their withered turf with the utmost eagerness. A hasty observer might perhaps be led to conclude that this was done with the design of looking for insects; but the eye of the bird directed away from the spot and expressive of inward pleasure, would show him that such a conjecture could not be supported. A more familiar instance of pulverizing may be observed in the barn-door fowl, even the unfledged chickens of which we have observed muddling in the dust by instinct, it should seem, as they were too young to have learned the practice from experience or by imitation. Now, had the feathers of these pulverizers been previously smeared with any unctuous matter, such as that in the rump-gland, the dust would have adhered, and thus tended to soil rather than to cleanse them. The design with which these birds hustle amongst dust is supposed to be to suffocate or banish the birdlice (Nirmi), with which most birds are infested; on the same principle as swine wallow in the mire, and as the rhinoceros and elephant in Nubia roll themselves in mud to defend themselves from the terrible breeze

* Volney, Egypt and Syria, vol. ii.

fly called zimb*. Be this as it may, we have not observed birds, after pulverizing, employed in combing the dust out of their feathers with their bills; they seem, on the contrary, to prefer its remaining.

This curious subject may be illustrated by a circumstance observed by the traveller just quoted, in an eagle (Gypaëtos barbatus, STORR) which he shot in Abyssinia. "Upon laying hold," says he, "of his monstrous carcass, I was not a little surprised at seeing my hands covered and tinged with yellow powder or dust. On turning him upon his belly and examining the feathers of his back, they also produced a dust, the colour of the feathers there. This dust was not in small quantities; for, upon striking the breast, the yellow powder flew in full greater quantity than from a hair-dresser's powderpuff. The feathers of the belly and breast, which were of a gold colour, did not appear to have anything extraordinary in their formation; but the large feathers in the shoulder and wings seemed apparently to be fine tubes, which, upon pressure, scattered this dust upon the finer part of the feather;' but this was brown, the colour of the feathers of the back. Upon the side of the wing, the ribs or hard part of the feathers seemed to be bare, as if worn; or, I rather think, were renewing themselves, having before failed in their functions. What is the reason of this extraordinary provision of nature, it is not in my power to determine. As it is an unusual one, it is probably meant for a defence against the climate, in favour of birds which live in those almost inaccessible heights of a country doomed, even in its lowest parts, to several months' excessive rain t." A powdering of dust, however, we may remark in reference to this conjecture, would seem to be a bad protection against a heavy shower.

* Bruce's Travels.

+ Travels, Appendix, p. 155.

not spare room for an extended or critical account of the classifications in question, we must content ourselves with giving a few of these in outline.

WILLUGHBY'S AND RAY'S SYSTEM.

It would be doing injustice to our eminent countrymen Willughby and Ray, not to give precedence to their arrangement, which in fact is the basis of most of those that followed. They make two grand divisions:

I. LAND FOWL, are either such as have Crooked Beak and Talons, which are either Carnivorous and Rapacious, and these are either Diurnal, that prey in the day-time;

The Greater, and these are either

The more generous, called EAGLES:

The more cowardly and sluggish, called VUL

TURES.

The Lesser, called in Latin Accipitres:
The more generous, called HAWKS:
Long-winged, as the Falcon;

Short winged, as the Goshawk.

The more cowardly, and sluggish, and indocile :
The Greater, as the Buzzard.

The Lesser European, as the Shrikes ;
Exotic, as the Birds of Paradise.

Nocturnal, that fly and prey by night:

Horned or eared, as the Horn Owl;

Without horns, as the Brown Owl.

Frugivorous, called by the general name of PARROTS: Greatest kind, called Macaws;

Middle-sized Parrots and Popinjays ;

Least kind, Parrakeets.

More Straight Bill and Claws, distinguishable into Greatest kind: Exotic birds of a singular nature, as the Ostrich, the Cassowary, the Dodo.

Middle-sized, divisable into

Bechstein; and in water near their haunts we see them every day assiduously bathing. In confinement, again, they wash much oftener than the seed-eaters. A redbreast, which we at present possess, will wash at any hour of the day or night when he is furnished with water, and his feathers are scarcely dry before he is eager to renew his bath, which he would do, if permitted, a dozen times a day; while a goldfinch in a neighbouring cage does not care about washing above once or twice a week. A fine black-cap, which is also in our possession, is nearly as fond of frequent washing as the redbreast*. Mr. Sweet finds that when his more tender birds are allowed to wash as often as they would do, particularly in winter, it is apt to prove injurious, and sometimes fatal †.

"One of the most remarkable propensities that manifest themselves in young birds," says the Hon. and Rev. W. Herbert, "is the ardent desire of washing themselves, in some species, and of dusting themselves, in others, as for instance in the common wren. This, I conceive, must be an instinctive incitement. It is barely possible that the little wrens might see through the aperture of their covered nest the parents dusting themselves on the ground in some instances; but their nests are often placed where this could not be perceived, and the desire is equally powerful in all individuals. On the other hand, the nests of the wood-wren and many others which wash themselves eagerly on the first opportu- . nity that presents itself after they can feed themselves, could never have seen the like, their nest having been situated under the roots of a tree upon a dry bank in a wood. This impulse is, therefore, inspired by the Creator; and it is inspired with a force that in captivity is like unto madness. It is very injurious to a * J. R. + British Warblers, passim.

nightingale to wash in the winter, and it is fatal to it to do so often; yet the moment a pan of water is put into its cage, it rushes into the water and soaks itself, and then stands shivering the very image of chilliness and despair; yet will it eagerly repeat the operation, if allowed to do so, every day till it dies. Young whinchats, sedge-warblers, woodwrens, yellow wrens, &c. as soon as they can feed themselves, if offered water in a cage, wash with similar avidity; yet if the temperature be much under 70°, and the sun not shining, it is sure to kill them. In the younger birds it produces, some hours after and perhaps the next day, a sudden stroke of palsy, by which they drop with a scream, having lost the use of one or both legs, and often with the mouths distorted. In this state the general health does not seem to be affected, but if both legs are paralysed, they must soon perish. At a little more advanced age, the consequence of a single washing in cool weather is epileptic fits, which are repeated at shorter intervals till they occasion death. In a state of liberty the bird would dry itself quickly by rubbing against the leaves and by very active motion, in the same manner as the wrens by perpetual activity resist the severest frost, of which the least attack would kill them in confinement; and probably when birds have opportunities of washing always at hand, they choose the most favourable moments. In a cage it is necessary to give such birds their water in a very narrowmouthed fountain, to prevent their killing themselves by washing. They will repeat it with equal eagerness, if not prevented, until they die, so strong is the inward impulse. I think the desire of washing belongs most strongly to the birds which migrate to hotter climates in winter, that of dusting to those which remain with us; a substitution wise as all the dis