bled him to make additions to the stores of scientific facts. Lalande praises his accuracy in observations, his patience, his diligence, and his courage in overcoming every obstacle, in the highest terms. He died Dec. 2, 1805, of a lung fever. CHABERT; a Frenchman, who attracted much attention in London, in the autumn of 1829, by swallowing several species of poison, and exposing himself to a great heat in the Argyle rooms, and in various other places, in presence of a large number of persons of respectability. He swallowed, in a manner which precluded the idea of deception, from 10 to 20 grains of phosphorus, and a teaspoonful of prussic acid, before a company including several medical gentlemen. The antidote which he used, he said, was extremely simple, and the newspapers stated that gentlemen of the London medical faculty had been treating with him for the purchase of his secret. Chabert exposed himself to the heat of an oven, from which he brought a thermometer standing at 380°; his pulse was then beating 168 times in a minute. He called himself the fire king. (For a more minute account, we must refer the reader to the London papers of that time.) CHACABUCO, BATTLE OF; celebrated in the history of modern Chile. In the beginning of 1817, the Spaniards were completely masters of Chile, having, in 1813, beaten Carrera, and compelled him, and others, his compatriots, to cross the mountains for safety. But, on the 12th of February, 1817, the troops of San Martin, commanded by O'Higgins, gained a decisive victory over the Spaniards under Maroto, at Chacabuco, which, with that of Maypu, fought afterwards, gave independence to the country. (See Chile, O'Higgins, Maypu.)-Stevenson's S. Am., vol. iii. p. 131.

CHACTAWS. (See Choctaws.)

CHERONEA; a place in Boeotia, famous for the battle fought there, 338 B. C., between Philip of Macedon and the confederated Greeks. (See Greece and Philip.) CHAFALAYA; the western branch of the mouth of the Mississippi, which runs into St. Bernard's bay.

CHAGAING, or CHAGONG; a town of Birmah, on the west bank of the Irrawaddy, opposite to Ava, partly at the foot, and partly on the side of a hill, sometimes the residence of the king; lon. 96° E.; lat. 21° 56′ N. It stands very high, being ouilt on the slope of several hills, the tops of which are covered with numerous temples, most of them ornamented with spires and gilded roofs, forming a beauti

ful prospect. The houses are of timber, with tiled roofs. The town derives great riches from its quarries of beautiful white marble, and the manufacture of idols. These are chiefly statues of Boodh or Gaudama, the deity of the country, sitting cross-legged on a pedestal. It is likewise a mart for cotton, exported to China.

CHAILLOT; a village which is situated behind the Tuileries, and now included within the limits of Paris. It is ornamented with splendid country-seats and gardens, affording delightful prospects of the Seine and the surrounding country. On the extremity of the quai Billy, opposite to the celebrated bridge of Jena (now the bridge of the military school), is the unfinished palace of the king of Rome, commenced by Napoleon at an enormous expense. The ruins of this palace, on entering the city from the side of Versailles, afford a disagreeable prospect, and an unpleasant contrast with the beautiful architecture of the military school, immediately opposite to it. The parish church is the sepulchre of the brave count Josias Rantzau, marshal of France, who was buried here in 1650. The nuns of the order of Sainte Marie de la visitation had a celebrated convent here, where persecuted grandeur often sought an asylum. Here died, in 1669, the queen Henrietta of France, daughter of king Henry IV, wife of Charles I king of England, and her niece, the princess Louisa, of the Bavarian palatinate, who, with the other nuns, used to make hay in the neighboring fields.

CHAIN, in surveying, is a measure consisting of a certain number of links of iron wire, serving to take the dimensions of fields, &c.

Chain. In nautical language, chains are strong links or plates of iron, the lower ends of which are bolted through a ship's side to the timbers. They are on the outside, and are used to contain the blocks called dead-eyes, by which the shrouds of the masts are extended.-Top chains are those which preserve the lower yards from falling, when, in time of battle, the ropes are rendered incapable of service. CHAIN-CABLE. (See Cable.),

CHAIN-TIMBER; a timber of large dimensions, placed in the middle of a building, to give it strength.

CHAIN-WALES. (See Channels.) CHAISE, PERE DE LA. (See Lachaise and Cemetery.)

CHALCEDON (at present, the village Ka demki); under the Roman dominion, a flourishing city in Bithynia, on the north

west point of Asia Minor, opposite Constantinople, and not far from the present Scutari. At this place, in the autumn of 451, Marcian, the emperor of the East, held the fourth general council, for the purpose of destroying the ascendency of the Monophysite doctrines (see Monophysites), obtained, in 449, by the influence of the Alexandrian patriarch Dioscuros, at the (so called) robber-synod at Ephesus; and to establish a creed of Christian faith, which, equally remote from the Nestorian and Monophysite doctrines, should satisfy all parties of orthodox Christians. The emperor's commissioners took the lead, and after them came the legates of the Roman bishop Leo I, who had endeavored to establish articles of faith without the aid of a council, but deemed it judicious to maintain his influence there, and take revenge for the excommunication pronounced against him by Dioscuros. This council, which consisted of 600 bishops, mostly of the East, deposed Dioscuros, and, after violent debates, adopted into their articles of faith, at the instigation of the Roman legate, the tenor of a missive of Leo to Flavian, the former patriarch of Constantinople, directed against Eutyches, the founder of Monophysitism, besides the confessions of faith of the general councils of Nice and Constantinople; also two synodal missives of the former patriarch, Cyril of Alexandria, condemning the Nestorian tenets. The articles of faith settled by them declared the mother of Jesus the parent of God, and established, in opposition to the Monophysites, the belief of two natures in Christ, existing without mixture or change, without division or separation, so that, by the union of the two natures in one person and substance, their distinction is not destroyed, but the characteristics of each are retained. Besides this creed, the council promulgated 30 canons against the abuses of the clergy, of which canons the 28th conceded to the patriarch of Constantinople equal rights and privileges with the Roman, to whom it merely gave precedence of rank; and thus the matter remained, notwithstanding the remonstrances of the Roman legates. Bloody rebellions in Palestine and Egypt were the immediate consequences of the decrees of the council of Chalcedon against Dioscuros and the Monophysites; and not till after a long period of ecclesiastical contests, during which the Monophysites were entirely separated from the orthodox, and formed distinct church, did the Chalcedon fornula of faith obtain the authority which

it now has in the Catholic, Greek, and many Protestant churches.

CHALCEDONY; a mineral including several varieties, which have received distinct names in the arts. It occurs in small veins, or in cavities of other minerals, and appears to have been formed by the filtration of silicious matter.-1. The common chalcedony has a cloudy or milky appearance when held between the eye and the light. It is semitransparent, or only translucent in various degrees. Though sometimes nearly white, its more common color is gray, more or less shaded with blue, yellow, brown, green, &c. The surface is often rough or uneven. Its fracture is usually even, though seldom smooth. It is usually contained in amygdaloid, porphyry, greenstone or basalt, or in the cavities of these rocks. It sometimes traverses them in veins. Sometimes it occurs in metallic veins, also in granite and gneiss. Oberstein, in the palatinate of the Rhine, is one of the best localities. Fine specimens are found in the islands of Faroe. It is found, also, in Vicentino and Iceland, and in Trevascus mine, in Cornwall, in New South Shetland, in Nova Scotia, and in many parts of the U. States. It receives a good polish, and is much used for ring-stones, seals, &c.-2. Another of the principal varieties is carnelian. The prevailing color of this variety is red; sometimes it has a tinge of yellow or brown, or is nearly white. Its colors, or their different shades, sometimes appear in spots or stripes, or gradually pass into each other. It is commonly semitransparent, sometimes only translucent. Its geological situation is similar to that of common chalcedony, which it often accompanies. The finest specimens, sometimes called Oriental carnelian, come from Cambay, Surat, &c. in India. It is obtained, also, from Arabia, Siberia, Sardinia and Surinam. It is found on lake Superior near Portage river, in Missouri at Herculaneum, &c., in Massachusetts at Deerfield. It receives a good polish, and is much employed for seals, bracelets, &c. The ancients often engraved on carnelian.

3. Sardonyx differs from carnelian in its celor only, which is reddish-yellow, or nearly orange, sometimes with a tinge of brown. It often appears blood-red by transmitted light. It is found in Massachusetts, at Deerfield, in greenstone.

CHALDEA, in ancient geography; the southerly part of Babylonia, towards Arabia and the Persian gulf, lying west of the mouth of the Tigris and Euphrates, formerly a fertile country, now barren. The

dependence of his principles, Chalotais gained the esteem of the people, and, after the 60th year of his age, excited general attention by the attack which he commenced against the Jesuits. The French court had given them permission to remain in the kingdom, but sought to weaken their influence. D'Alembert, Duclos, Condillac, Mably, Montesquieu and Diderot, the friends of Chalotais, strove to effect the abolition of the order in France. But it was attacked with the greatest violence in Chalotais' celebrated work, which first appeared in 1761, and has been frequently reprinted-Comptes rendus des Constitutions des Jésuites; which he first read, in his official capacity, before the parliament of Rennes. His example was followed in the other parliaments, and the consequence was a dissolution of the order. Chalotais was supported, in this process, by that hatred which infallibly attends the abuse of power, and particularly by the numerous Jansenists in France, who had so long opposed the Jesuits. He was aided, also, by the irresolution of the court, and the envy of the other religious orders. In vain did Caveyrac, who attempted, at first, to justify the repeal of the edict of Nantes, write in defence of the Jesuits; in vain did Menouc, Griffet, and the ingenious Cerutti, of their own party, plead the services which they had rendered to the cause of God and to the throne of France, and the brilliant talents which had been developed in their schools. The independent character of Chalotais soon gave his enemies an opportunity of revenging themselves, when a dispute arose between the court and the parliament of Rennes, on account of the refusal of the latter to register certain financial edicts which seemed to infringe the privileges of the duchy of Bretagne. After serving his country for 36 years, Chalotais was arrested with his son and five counsellors of the parliament, who favored his cause, and thrown into prison. He suffered this treatment as the supposed author of several anonymous letters to one of the ministry, in which the style of a person of the lowest class was imitated. The prisoner in vain protested his innocence in several memorials (1766 et seq.), seconded by the pen of Voltaire and the public voice. The commission appointed to examine him published their proceedings, and condemned him before the regular forms of law had been all complied with. Calonne, the minister who conducted the process, and the duke of Aiguillon, governor of the

province, were the personal enemies of the prisoner. The parliament of Rennes was dissolved, and a new one summoned, which assumed the right of judging in the case of Chalotais. But the process had scarcely commenced, when the greatest part of the judges refused to serve; the rest, 13 in number, were refused by the prisoner on account of their partiality to the side of the prosecution. The voice of the people at length prevailed. The remonstrances of the court, and of the duke of Choiseul, determined the king to put a stop to the proceedings. The prisoners were banished to Saintes. Chalotais was requested to resign his office, but he refused. The parliament of Rennes desired the reinstatement of all its members. New pamphlets, in relation to the suit, appeared every day, and 150 distributors of them were imprisoned in the Bicètre. The officers of government at length grew weary of burning the numerous publications, or, as it was said publicly, of burning the truth. From this tedious prosecution of the attorney-general, a new action arose. The parliament of Rennes commenced a process against the governor, the duke of Aiguillon. Louis XVI, the succeeding king, set the attorney at liberty. After 10 years of persecution, he was reinstated in his office at Rennes. The whole process against Chalotais was characterized by weakness as much as by tyranny, and indicated the approaching ruin of a despotism_which had lost its energy. In 1826, a Jesuit writer in Paris assailed the character of Chalotais anew. A prosecution was commenced against him by the heirs of the accused, and ho was brought in guilty.

CHAMADE, in military language (generally derived from the Italian chiamare, to call), is a signal, either by beat of drum or sound of trumpet, to obtain a conference, when any matter is to be proposed to the enemy.

CHAMBER. Forcellini defines camera an arched roof or ceiling; Herodotus uses the word xapápa, to signify a covered wagon; Ottfried and Notker, two early German writers, use kammer to denote a vaulted chamber, the keeper of which, as early as the time of king Dagobert, was called camerarius. The public treasury of the princes was called, in the 10th century, camera; and in German, down to the present period, those sciences, an acquaintance with which is essential to the proper administration of the different departments of government, are called cameral-wissenschaften. Words derived from

the Latin term camera are common in modern European languages: thus camera in Italian; in French, chambre; in English, chamber; in German, kammer; in Spanish, camara; in Swedish, kamar. In many languages, chamber is used to designate a branch of government whose members assemble in a common apartment thus we have the camera apostolica, in Rome; camara de justicia, in Spain; chambre des députés, in France; kammergericht, in Germany, &c.-Chamber of a cannon, in artillery; that part of the bore of a cannon which receives the powder with which it is charged.—Cham ber of a mortar; the space where the powder lies.-Chamber of a mine; the place where the charge of powder is lodged that is to be used for blowing up the works. Chamber of a battery; a place sunk under ground to hold the powder, bombs, &c., so as to preserve them from rain or moisture.-Chamber of a lock is the space between the gates of a lock in a canal, in which the barge rises and sinks, so as to pass the lock.

CHAMBER OF DEPUTIES. (See Charte Constitutionnelle.)

CHAMBER OF PEERS. (See Charte Constitutionnelle.)

CHAMBER, IMPERIAL. The imperial chamber (in German, Reichskammergericht) was a court of the German empire, established at Wetzlar, near the Rhine. It was instituted by the emperor Maximilian I, in 1495. In 1806, when the German empire was dissolved, this court, of course, expired. The imperial chamber had concurrent jurisdiction with the aulic council (q. v.) at Vienna, and was intended, among other things, to adjust the disputes between the different independent members of the German empire, and also such as arose between them and the emperor. The intention of this establishment certainly was good, and its effect, at first, beneficial. But the immense mass of cases which came before it, together with the national pedantry of the Germans, eventually occasioned the protraction of the processes to an interminable length. By the conditions of the peace of Westphalia, after the thirty years' war, particularly by the treaty of Osnaburg, in 1648, the imperial chamber was composed of a Catholic judge, 4 presidents, named by the emperor (2 Catholic and 2 Protestant), and 50 counsellors, 26 of whom were Catholics, and the rest Protestants. After that time, the members of the court were much reduced. The sentences were without appeal, but

were often powerless, because the different German princes frequently refused to allow them to be executed in their territories. The history of the imperial chamber affords another instance of the correctness of Napoleon's judgment in dissolving the fabric of the German empire, conformably to the demands of the age.

CHAMBERLAIN; a court officer, originally employed, as the name indicates, either to take charge of the private apartments of the king, or of the treasury, called, in the 10th century, camera. (See Chamber.) The golden key, which is worn by the chamberlains of the European courts on two small golden buttons (as well as the buttons themselves, when the key is omitted), indicates, also, the origin of the office. At present, their employment (when their office is not merely nominal) is to attend on the persons of the princes and their consorts. There is generally a chief or high chamberlain. This officer, in England, is called lord great chamberlain of England. His office is one of great antiquity and honor, being ranked as the sixth great office of the English crown. He dresses and un dresses the king before and after the cor onation. There exists, also, a lord cham berlain of the household, a lord chamber lain of the queen's household, &c. Ir. fact, there are almost as many chamberlains as chambers.-Chamberlain of London is the officer who keeps the city money, which is laid up in a chamber of London, in Guildhall. He also presides over the affairs of masters and apprentices, makes free of the city, &c.

CHAMBERRY, or CHAMBERI (anciently Cameria, Camerium, and Cameriacum); capital of Savoy, at the conflux of two small rivers, near the Isere; 123 posts E. Lyons; lon. 5° 55′ E.; lat. 45° 26′ N.; population, 11,991; houses, 1985. It is a bishop's see. It contains a cathedral, 2 parish churches, 14 convents, 4 hospitals, a college, and a public library. In its vicinity are excellent baths, much frequented in summer. It is situated in a delightful valley, and is defended by a castle placed on an eminence. Its suburbs are large and elegant; all the hoses have piazzas. It has considerable manufactures and dis tilleries.-At this place the emperor Sigismund erected the earldom of Savoy into a dukedom, and it was once the residence of the princes; but, after the court was removed to Turin, it lost its splendor.

CHAMBERS, Ephraim; a miscellaneous writer, and compiler of a popular diction