hird, the 'Enonrea, inspection. The works of Clement are of great importance, as enabling us to judge of the state of science in his time, and because they contain fragments and accounts of lost works of antiquity. Clement introduced the eclectic philosophy into Christianity, and promoted the allegorical and mystical explanation of the sacred writings. The philosophy and erudition which gained hin the admiration of his time, but also seduced him, at times, into singular speculations, caused him, at a later period, to be considered a heretic, and to lose, with the orthodox, the name of saint, which had been conferred on him. The first editions of his works are that at Florence, in 1550, and that at Heidelberg (Commelin.), 1592, by Frederic Sylburg, both in folio. The most complete is that of John Potter, Oxon., A Theatro Sheldon, 1715, reprinted at Venice, 1757.

CLEMENT; the name of many popes.CLEMENT I, of Rome, was, according to the most probable computation, from 91 to 100, bishop in that city. He is counted among the apostolic fathers (see Church, Fathers of), because St. Paul, in his epistle to the Philippians (chap. iv. verse 3), mentions a Clement as a co-laborer with him, and St. Peter is said to have given him the spiritual consecration. He wrote two letters to the Corinthians, of which the first is extant almost entire, but disfigured with some corruptions and interpolations; of the second, only a fragment exists. There is a work, pretending to be the autobiography of Clement, containing an account of his life, and his travels with the apostle Peter, which, however, can be proved to have been written at the end of the 2d or the beginning of the 3d century. It exists in three different forms: the first and most complete is in a Latin translation by Rufinus, under the title Recognitiones, because Clement, after a number of the strangest adventures, finds the members of his family, who had been separated from him; the second is in Greek, and divided into homilies, under the title Clementina; the third is a short epitome, relating the acts, journeys and preaching of St. Peter. There is equally little reason for considering Clement the author of the body of apostolic constitutions and canons which are ascribed to him, though some of them may belong to him, or at least to his age. Of a far later origin are the pseudo-Clementine letters among the spurious decretals. The opinion started by professor Kestner, 1819, that Clement established a secret Christian

society, under the name Agape, for the systematic suppression of paganism, has not been adopted by any other theologian.

CLEMENT II (Suidger, bishop of Bamberg) was placed in the papal see by the emperor Henry III, in the room of the unworthy Benedict IX. He crowned this emperor, and held a synod for the suppression of simony. His death took place in 1047. He was probably poisoned by Benedict IX. (q. v.)

Be

CLEMENT III (Guibert, archbishop of Ravenna, belonging to the party of the emperor Henry IV) was chosen pope in 1080, with the view of supplanting Gregory VII, and placed by violence in the Roman see (1084); maintained his situation as anti-pope, even after Gregory's death, against Victor III, who was chosen by Gregory's adherents, and against Urban II, with various success, till 1089. He was expelled by the Romans, and compelled to swear to renounce all claims to the papal authority; but, in 1091, he returned to Rome with Henry's army. ing again compelled to quit the city in 1094, he sought refuge at Henry's court, submitted, in 1099, to Urban's successor, Paschal II, and died at Ravenna, in 1100. He exercised the papal authority only in those provinces of Germany and Italy which were under the dominion of the emperor, and is not numbered among the legal popes. Consequently, the cardinalbishop Paulus of Palestine, a Roman, chosen pope in 1187, was denominated Clement III. His government was rendered remarkable by a compact with the Romans, which put an end to the disputes that had previously been constantly oc curring between them and their pontiffs, and strengthened his authority. He promoted the crusades, and supported Tan cred in getting possession of the Sicilian crown. Tancred was a natural son of the duke Roger of Apulia. This pope died in 1191.

CLEMENT IV (Guido of St. Guilles, in Languedoc); previously counsellor to the king of France, and a lawyer. He was also the father of two daughters. When a widower, he became archbishop of Narbonne, cardinal-bishop of Sabina, and legate in England. He was chosen pope in 1265, by the party of Charles of Anjou, and conferred on this prince the crown of both the Sicilies, then possessed by Manfred. Clement assisted Charles against Manfred by instigating a crusade against the latter, and did not obtain possession of Rome himself until 1268, after a residence of two years in France (unti

1267), and subsequently at Viterbo, and after the last prince of the Hohenstaufen stock, Conradin, had been beheaded at Naples. Not satisfied with having caused the fall of the house of Hohenstaufen in Italy, he wished to decide the dispute between Richard of England and Alphonso of Spain, respecting the imperial throne of Germany, but died, without having accomplished his object, at Viterbo, Nov. 29, 1269. He was distinguished, as a ruler of the church, by his power and resolution, as an excellent preacher, strict ascetic, and enemy to nepotism.*

CLEMENT V (Bertrand d'Agoust, from Gascony), previous to his election, archbishop of Bordeaux, and an adherent to Boniface VIII, who was the most inveterate enemy of Philip, king of France; but on the death of Boniface VIII, Philip gained him over by promising to promote his election, and obtained from him a secret agreement to conform entirely to his wishes. He was indebted for his election (which took place in Perugia, June 5, 1305) to the artifices of Philip's agents, who outwitted the Italian cardinals. He remained in France, on account of the civil wars in Italy, was crowned at Lyons, and then travelled about the country at the expense of the king and the French clergy, until, in 1309, he finally fixed upon Avignon as the constant residence of the papal court. With him, therefore, the series of French popes (or those who resided in Avignon) commences. In consideration of his agreement above-mentioned, he released the king and his servants from the excommunication which Boniface had pronounced against them, declared the penal bulls of this pope against France invalid, made cardinals of the king's favorites, and resigned to the king the tithes of France for five years. He, however, defeated Philip's plan of placing his brother Charles of Valois on the throne of Germany, and, against Philip's desire, acquitted Boniface, after a tedious process, and long after his death, of the charge of heresy, at the council of Vienne. The holding of this council, which sat seven months, in 1311 and 1312, was the principal act of his reign. At this same council, in obedience to the wishes of Philip, he abolished the order of the Templars, and made salutary laws for the reform of the clergy and the monastic discipline, which, in honor of him,

Nepotism, from nepos (nephew), denotes the indue partiality of the popes towards their relations, and their prodigal distribution of the offices and revenues of the church among them.

were denominated Clementines. (q. v.) He endeavored to confirm his power in Italy by a close connexion with king Robert of Naples, his vassal. With his assistance, he humbled Venice, on which he had imposed the interdict, in 1308, to punish this state for having taken possession of Ferrara, and, in 1309, issued a new act of excommunication, by which he pronounced the Venetians infamous and outlawed, abolished all the offices of their government, released the people from obedience, and annulled the laws. By a crusade against Venice, in which his legate subdued Ferrara, and by the confis cation of Venetian vessels and goods, he reduced the republic to complete subjection, and put an end to the war in 1313. Robert rendered him still greater service by restraining the power of the German emperor, and that of the Ghibeline party in Italy. The emperor Henry VII, although chosen by his influence, and bound to him by an oath of allegiance, knew well how to distinguish his rights in Italy from his obligations to the pope. On his march to Rome, in 1311, he found the whole of Lombardy in a state of revolt; and Clement refused him assistance, and even forbade his coronation, which Henry, however, extorted from the cardinals in Rome, in 1312. Henry, having engaged in a dis pute with king Robert respecting the govenment of Naples, put him under the bun of the empire, and refused the pope's offer of mediation between him and his antagonist; upon which Clement issued bulls for the protection of his vassal, and excommunicated all the emperor's allies. Upon the emperor's death, Clement appointed Robert, in 1314, Roman senator and regent in Italy; but, in the midst of his plans for the complete subjection of this country, he died, April 20, 1314, at Roquemaure, in Languedoc. He left be hind him an inglorious name. Constant embarrassments, extravagance and nepo tism, made him covetous, and led him to practise the most unlimited simony. He did great injury to the church by grants of valuable benefices to laymen, allowed his nephews to waste the money collected for the crusades, and Avignon to become the seat of every description of vice during his reign, the impurity of his own morals compelling him to overlook the faults of others. His establishment, at the council of Vienne, of chairs for instruction in the Oriental languages at the universities; his encouraging the studies of the monks, and restricting, in some degree, the crying injustice of the inquisition, cannot compen

sate for the flagrant faults in his administration of the papal see.

CLEMENT VI was a ruler not unlike the foregoing. His name was Peter Roger. He was born of a noble family in 1292, at Maumont, near Limoges; at first a Benedictine monk and abbot of Fecamp, afterwards bishop of Arras and counsellor of king Philip, likewise archbishop of Sens and Rouen; in 1338, cardinal, and in 1342, pope at Avignon. By the distribution of numberless abbeys and bishoprics to his favorites, by the sale of church offices, and by ordering the jubilee to be celebrated every fiftieth year instead of every hundredth, he soon gave proofs of his avarice. The emperor Louis of Bavaria he treated with the greatest severity, following the footsteps of his predecessor. His bulls of excommunication even surpassed those of the preceding pontiff in the violence of their anathemas and their obloquy. The son of the king of Bohemia, Charles of Luxemburg, who had formerly been his pupil at Paris, and was entirely devoted to him, was, by his influence, chosen king of the Romans, in 1346, by a part of the German members of the empire; but Clement was not able to get him universally acknowledged; after the death of Louis, in 1347, he was forced to grant to his adherents unconditional absolution; and, in order to gain the members of the empire after the renunciation of the rival candidate Günther of Schwarzburg, he was obliged to consent to the reëlection of Charles IV (q. v.), in 1349, without being able to obtain the entire fulfilment of the conditions, disadvantageous to the German empire, on which he had procured him the crown. Clement was more fortunate in Italy, where the revolt in Rome, under Rienzi (q. v.), in 1346, was soon quelled, and this remarkable man came into his power. The assassination of Andrew, king of Naples, afforded him an opportunity of inducing his widow, Joanna, who was suspected of being an accomplice in the murder, to sell Avignon to the papal see, in 1348; in consideration of which, she received absolution, and was left in possession of her realm. Thus the pope gained his possessions in France at a cheap rate. For a Spanish prince, he founded, in 1344, the kingdom of the Canary Isles. His negotiations for a union with the Greeks and Armenians were without success. He died unregretted in 1352. He was mild and liberal, in fact too much so towards his relations, fond of women, and not even externally devout. Petrarch praises his good memory. His 21

VOL. III.

writings are unimportant. During the great schism, two popes bore the name of Clement, who were not accounted legitimate popes by the church. Robert, count of Geneva, bishop of Cambray, and cardinal, was elected pope at the age of 36, at Fondi, in 1478, by the French cardinals, who had abandoned pope Urban VI. He adopted the name of Clement VII. With him the great schism commenced, France, and, at a later period, Scotland, Lorraine, Savoy and Spain having joined him. He resided at Avignon, where he derived his support from annates and from the sale of benefices, and offered to allow the schism to be decided by a coun cil of the church, but made no dispositions to bring this about. In Italy, he had no power, and was unable to protect the house of Anjou, in Naples. He died without reputation, Sept. 16, 1394. Still less power had the successor of the schismatic Benedict XIII, Ægidius Muñoz, from Barcelona, who was elected pope by three cardinals at Peniscola, in 1424, and called Clement VIII. He was supported by king Alphonso of Arragon, and resided at Peniscola until 1429, when he was induced, by receiving the bishopric of the Baleares, to give up his claims.

CLEMENT VII (Julius of Medici); a natural son of Julius of Medici, prior of the knights of St. John, under pope Julius II. He was legitimated by his uncle Leo X, made archbishop of Florence, cardinal and chancellor, and finally raised to the papal see (Nov. 19, 1523). His connexion with Francis I, king of France, involved him in a war with Charles V, to which he was by no means equal. The imperial army conquered and sacked Rome in 1527, imprisoned Clement for the space of seven months, in the castle of St. Angelo, and forced him to surrender all the strong places, and to pay a ransom of 40,000 ducats. Notwithstanding his flight to Orvieto, in which he was assisted by the French marshal Lautrec, he was compelled to perform this condition, and to appoint cardinals and prelates for money, to enable him ultimately to conclude peace with the emperor in 1529. He crowned Charles at Bologna in 1530, and obtained of him the reestablishment of the family of Medici in the duchy of Florence. He was not able to prevent the progress of the reformation in Germany, and, in England, he even accelerated it, by issuing a bull against the divorce of Henry VIII, which instigated that monarch to a total rupture with the pope. France received from him a per

nepotism, and succeeded in his severe regulations against the privileges claimed by foreign ambassadors for the quarter of the city in which they resided, on the ground that it ought to be considered as foreign territory. In the government of the church, and in the management of foreign affairs, he evinced more passionate violence than actual courage; and, with a striking want of political tact, more obstinacy and prejudice than decision of character. He resisted in vain the creation of the royal dignity in Prussia, and his partiality to the Bourbons, in the Spanish war of succession, proved injurious to him, particularly as he gave the imperial court other causes of dissatisfaction. He not only refused the request of the emperor Joseph to acknowledge his brother Charles in Spain, but likewise protested against the imperial right of the first bull, viz. the right claimed by the emperors, on their accession to the throne, of presenting candidates on the first vacancies which occurred in the ecclesiastical establishments of Germany, called Stifter. Neither threats of excommunication nor preparations for war prevented the imperial troops from entering the States of the Church and garrisoning Comacchio. Clement was compelled, in 1709, to cede Comacchio to the emperor, to dismiss 5000 of his troops, to grant to the imperial troops a free passage to Naples, and to acknowledge Charles III as king of Spain. He was thus completely separated from Philip V of Spain, who, for some years, gave up all connexion with Rome. He effected nothing by his protestation against the peace of Altranstädt and the election of king Stanislaus, and his nuncio was not admitted to the deliberations which resulted in the peace of Utrecht. Ingratitude and vexation were his rewards from the Jesuits, as well as from the Bourbons. Whilst in China, the Jesuits bade defiance to his prohibition of introducing heathen forms into Christian worship, illtreated his envoys, and finally compelled him to comply with their wishes: they led him, from a spirit of revenge towards the Jansenists in France, into measures injurious to the church and the papal authority. (See Unigenitus.) Clement entered into a contest, in 1713, respecting the rights of the crown of Sicily in church affairs, which neither his abolishment of the privilege nor his excommunication of Sicily could terminate, and he was at last compelled to yield, on account of the burdensome obligation of supporting the many priests and monks who had fled

from Sicily, and looked to him for aid as martyrs in his cause. None but the English pretender, whom he supported in Rome from the year 1717, and the king of Portugal, for whom he established a patriarchate in Lisbon, were sincerely devoted to him. In the government of the States of the Church, he proved himself well disposed. He enriched the library of the Vatican with Oriental manuscripts, and by the addition of his private library. In Bologna, he founded an academy of the fine arts, and was a general friend and patron of science. He was himself versed in theology, and occasionally preached at St. Peter's church. He died of an illness occasioned by excessive indulgence in confectionary, March 19, 1721. This pope lived at a time when the decline of the papal authority was becoming evident.

CLEMENT XII (Laurentius Corsini), a native of Florence, was born April 7, 1652, and created pope July 12, 1730. His relations with the Catholic powers were attended with as much trouble and vexation as those of his predecessor. He was forced to bestow on the infant of Spain only eight years of age, the cardinal's hat and the archbishopric of Toledo; to submit to the levying of troops by the Spaniards in the States of the Church, and. after a commotion thereby created, to admit a Spanish garrison into his dominions, and to allow Parma, long a papal fief, to pass, first to an infant and then to the German emperor, without gaining any thing by his submission but some advantageous reservations in the concorda made with Spain, 1737. He had a dispute with Venice concerning the privilege claimed by the ambassadors, of having their quarter of the city exempt from the jurisdiction of the Roman government, and at last submitted. Nor was his oppo sition to the royal right of patronage over the ecclesiastical benefices in Savoy more effectual, notwithstanding his threat of excommunicating the king. He did not even succeed in obtaining the little republic St. Marino. Convinced that he could gain nothing from the Catholics, Clement bent his thoughts seriously to the conversion of heretics, and therefore omitted the annual proclamation of the bull In cana Domini. Another bull, in which, unacquainted with the particular circumstances of the case, he promised the Protestants in Saxony to leave them the property of the church, which had been secularized during the reformation, if they would become Catholics, like their elector, only exposed him to ridicule. His preachers