plies that a man may be just but not at the same time prudent, there is one kind of accuracy which in disputation refines even upon truth, and another kind, when our whole discourse is accommodated to the understanding of the public. Therefore I here make use of the common terms of discourse, by calling some men brave, some good, others prudent. For when we treat of popular opinions, we should make use of popular terms, and Panatius did the same. But to return to our subject.

Of the three requisites of perfect popularity, the third I mentioned was, "when the public with a certain degree of admiration judges us to be worthy of preferment." Now everything that men observe to be great and above their comprehension they commonly admire; and with regard to individuals, those in whom they can see any unexpected excellences. They therefore behold with reverence and extol with the greatest praise, those men in whom they think they can perceive some distinguished or singular virtues; whereas they despise those whom they think to possess no virtue, spirit, or manliness. Now, men do not despise all those of whom they think ill. For they by no means contemn rogues, slanderers, cheats, and those who are prepared to commit an injury, though they have a bad opinion of them. Therefore, as I have already said, those are despised who can neither serve themselves nor any one else, who have no assiduity, no industry, and no concern about them; but those men are the objects of admiration who are thought to surpass others in virtue, and to be free as well from every disgrace, as especially from those vices which others cannot easily resist. For pleasures, those most charming mistresses, turn aside the greater number of minds from virtue, and most men, when the fires of affliction are applied to them, are unmeasurably terrified. Life and death, poverty and riches, make the deepest impressions upon all men. But as to those who, with a great and elevated mind, look down on these indifferently;-men whom a lofty and noble object, when it is presented to them, draws and absorbs to itself;-in such cases, who does not admire the splendour and the beauty of virtue?

XI. This sublimity of soul, therefore, produces the highest admiration; and above all justice, from which single virtue

men are called good, appears to the multitude as something marvellous. And with good reason; for no man can be just if he is afraid of death, pain, exile, or poverty, or prefers their contraries to justice. Men especially admire him who is incorruptible by money, and they consider every man in whom that quality is seen as ore purified by the fire. Justice, therefore, comprehends all the three means of acquiring glory which have been laid down. The love of the public, on account of its being a general benefit; its confidence, for the same reason and its admiration, because it neglects and despises those objects to which most men are hurried on inflamed with avidity.

In my opinion, however, every scheme and purpose of life requires the assistance of men, especially that one should have some with whom he can familiarly unbosom himself, which is hard for one to do, unless he maintain the appearance of a good man. For this reason, were a man to live ever so lonely or ever so retired in the country, a reputation for justice would be indispensable to him, and so much the more, as those who do not possess it will be esteemed dishonest, and thus surrounded by no protection will be exposed to numerous injuries.

And with those likewise who buy or sell, who hire or let out, or who are engaged in the transaction of business, justice is necessary to the carrying of their pursuits, for its influence is so great, that without some grains of it, even they who live by malpractices and villiany could not subsist. For amongst those who thieve in company, if any one of them cheat or rob another he is turned out of the gang; and the captain of the band himself, unless he should distribute the spoils impartially, would either be murdered or deserted by his fellows. Indeed, robbers are even said to have their laws, which they obey and observe. By this impartiality in sharing the booty, Bardyllis, the Illyrian robber, mentioned by Theopompus, obtained great wealth; and Viriathus, the Lusitanian, much greater; to whom our armies and our generals yielded; but whom the prætor Caius Lælius, surnamed the wise, crushed and subdued, and so repressed his ferocity that he left an easy victory to his successors. If, therefore, the influence of justice is so forcible as to strengthen and enlarge the power of robbers, how great must we suppose

it to be amidst the laws and administration of a well-consti

tuted government?

XII. It appears to me, that not only among the Medes, as we are told by Herodotus, but by our own ancestors, men of the best principles were constituted kings, for the benefit of their just government. For when the helpless people were oppressed by those who had greater power, they betook themselves to some one man who was distinguished by his virtue, who not only protected the weakest from oppression, but by setting up an equitable system of government, united highest and lowest in equal rights. The cause of the institution of laws was the same as that of kings; for equality of rights has ever been the object of desire; nor otherwise can there be any rights at all.

When mankind could enjoy it under one just and good man, they were satisfied with that; but when that was not the case, laws were invented, which perpetually spoke to all men with one and the same voice. It is therefore undeniable that the men whose reputation among the people was the highest for their justice, were commonly chosen to bear rule But when the same were likewise regarded as wise men, there was nothing the people did not think themselves capable of attaining under such authority. Justice, therefore, is by all manner of means to be reverenced and practised; both for its own sake (for otherwise it would not be justice), and for the enlargement of our own dignity and popularity. But as there is a system not only for the acquisition of money but also for its investment, so that it may supply everrecurring expenses, not only the needful but the liberal; so popularity must be both acquired and maintained by system.

It was finely said by Socrates that the shortest and most direct road to popularity, is "for a man to be the same that he wishes to be taken for." People are egregiously mistaken if they think they ever can attain to permanent popularity by hypocrisy, by mere outside appearances, and by disguising not only their language but their looks. True popularity takes deep root and spreads itself wide; but the false falls away like blossoms; for nothing that is false can be lasting. I could bring many instances of both kinds; but for the sake of liberty, I will confine myself to one family. While there is a memorial of Roman history remaining, the memory of

Tiberius Gracchus, the son of Publius, will be held in honour; but his sons even in life were not approved of by the good, and, being dead, they are ranked amongst those who were deservedly put to death.

XIII. Let the man therefore who aspires after true popularity, perform the duties of justice. What these are has been laid down in the former book. But although we may most easily seem to be just what we are (though in this of itself there is very great importance), yet some precepts require to be given as to how we may be such men as we desire to be considered. For if any one from early youth has the elements of celebrity and reputation, either derived from his father (which I fancy, my dear Cicero, has happened to you), or by some other cause or accident; the eyes of all mankind are turned towards him, and they make it their business to inquire what he does and how he lives; and, as if he were set up in the strongest point of light, no word or deed of his can be private.

those whose early life, through their mean and obseur rank, is passed unnoticed by the public, when they come to be young men, ought to contemplate important purpose, and pursue them by the most direct means, which they wil do with a firmer resolution, because not only is no envy felt, but favour rather is shown towards that period of life. The chief recommendation then of a young man to fame is derived from military exploits.* Of this we have many ex

"Perhaps it will afford to some men new ideas, if we inquire what the real nature of the military virtues is. They receive more of applause than virtues of any other kind. How does this happen? We must seek a solution in the seeming paradox, that their pretensions to the characters of virtues are few and small. They receive much applause because they merit little. They could not subsist without it; and if men resolve to practise war, and consequently to require the conduct which gives success to war, they must decorate that conduct with glittering fictions, and extol the military virtues, though they be neither good nor great. Of every species of real excellence it is the general characteristic that it is not anxious for applause. The more elevated the virtue the less the desire, and the less is the public voice a motive to action. What should we say of that man's benevolence who would not relieve a neighbour in distress, unless the donation would be praised in a newspaper? What should we say of that man's piety, who prayed only when he was seen of men?' But the military, virtues live upon applause; it is their vital element and their food, their great pervading motive and reward. Are there, then, amongst the respective virtues such discordances of character, such total contrariety of nature

amples amongst our ancestors, for they were almost always waging wars. Your youth however has fallen upon the time of a war, in which one party incurred too much guilt and the other too little success. But when in that war Pompey gave you the command of a squadron, you gained the praise of that great man and of his army by your horsemanship, your darting the javelin, and your tolerance of all military labour. But this honour of yours ceased with the constitution of our country. My discourse however has not been undertaken with reference to you singly, but to the general subject. Let me therefore proceed to what remains.

As in other matters the powers of the mind are far more important than those of the body, so the objects we pursue by intelligence and reason are more important than those we effect by bodily strength. The most early recommendation, therefore, is modesty, obedience to parents, and affection for relations. Young men are likewise most easily and best known, who attach themselves to wise and illustrious men who benefit their country by their counsels. Their frequenting such company gives mankind a notion of their one day resembling those whom they choose for imitation.

The frequenting of the house of Publius Marcus commended the early life of Publius Rutilius to a reputation for integrity and knowledge of the law. Lucius Crassus indeed, when very young, was indebted to no extrinsic source, but by himself acquired the highest honour from that noble and celebrated prosecution he undertook; and at an age when even those who exercise themselves are highly applauded (as we are told in the case of Demosthenes), Crassus, I say, at that age showed that he could already do that most successfully in the forum, which at that time he would have gained praise had he attempted at home.

XIV. But as there are two methods of speaking; the one proper for conversation, the other for debate; there can be no doubt but the disputative style of speech is of the greatest efficacy with regard to fame; for that is what we properly term eloquence. Yet it is difficult to describe how great

and essence? No, no. But how then do you account for the fact, that whilst all other great virtues are independent of public praise and stand aloof from it, the military virtues can scarcely exist without it?"-Dy. mond's Essay on Morals."