hostile; he also to whom it is given disguises his willingness to accept it, and especially in lent monies he conceals his joy that he may not appear to have been insolvent; but he, on the other hand, who receives the injury, both remembers and proclaims his indignation; nor if they are more in number to whom it is dishonestly given than those from whom it has been unjustly taken, are they even for that cause more suc cessful. For these matters are not determined by number, but by weight. Now, what justice is it that lands which have been pre-occupied for many years, or even ages, he who was possessed of none should get, but he who was in possession should lose?

XXIII. And on account of this kind of injustice, the Lacedæmonians expelled their Ephorus Lysander, and put to death their king Agis—a thing which never before had happened among them. And from that time such great dissensions ensued, that tyrants arose, and the nobles were exiled, and a constitution admirably established fell to pieces. Nor did it fall alone, but also overthrew the rest of Greece by the contagion of evil principles, which having sprung from the Lacedæmonians, flowed far and wide. What! was it not the agrarian contentions that destroyed our own Gracchi, sons of that most illustrious man Tiberius Gracchus, and grandsons of Africanus? But, on the contrary, Aratus, the Sicyonian, is justly commended, who, when his native city had been held for fifty years by tyrants, having set out from Argos to Sicyon, by a secret entrance got possession of the city, and when on a sudden he had overthrown the tyrant Nicocles, he restored six hundred exiles, who had been the wealthiest men of that state, and restored freedom to the state by his coming. But when he perceived a great difficulty about the goods and possessions, because he considered it most unjust both that they whom he had restored, of whose property others had been in possession, should be in want, and he did not think it very fair that possessions of fifty years should be disturbed, because that after so long an interval, many of those properties were got possession of wthout injustice, by inheritance, many by purchase, many by marriage portions; he judged neither that the properties ought to be taken from the latter, nor that these to whom they had belonged should be without satis

faction. When, then, he had concluded that there was need of money to arrange that matter, he said that he would go to Alexandria, and ordered the matter to be undisturbed until his return. He quickly came to his friend Ptolemy, who was then reigning, the second after the building of Alexandria, and when he had explained to him that he was desirous to liberate his country, and informed him of the case, this most eminent man readily received consent from the opulent king that he should be assisted with a large sum of money. When he had brought this to Sicyon, he took to himself for his council fifteen noblemen, with whom he took cognizance of the cases, both of those who held other persons' possessions, and of those who had lost their own; and by valuing the possessions, he so managed as to persuade some to prefer receiving the money, and yielding up the possessions; others to think it more convenient that there should be paid down to them what was the price, rather than they should resume possession of their own. Thus it was brought about that all departed without a complaint, and concord was established. Admirable man, and worthy to have been born in our nation! Thus it is right to act with citizens, not (as we have now seen twice)* to fix up a spear in the forum, and subject the goods of the citizens to the voice of the auctioneer. But that Greek thought, as became a wise and superior man, that it was necessary to consult for all. And this is the highest reason and wisdom of a good citizen, not to make divisions in the interests of the citizens, but to govern all by the same equity. Should any dwell free of expense in another man's house? Why so? Is it that when I shall have bought, built, repaired, expended, you, without my will, should enjoy what is mine? What else is this but to take from some what is theirs; to give to some what is another man's? But what is the meaning of an abolition of debts, unless that you should buy an estate with my money-that you should have the estate, and I should not have my money?

XXIV. Wherefore, it ought to be provided that there be not such an amount of debt as may injure the state-a thing which may be guarded against in many ways; not that if there shall be such debt the rich should lose their

* Under Sylla, and under ær.

rights, and the debtors gain what is another's-for nothing holds the state more firmly together than public credit, which cannot at all exist unless the payment of money lent shall be compulsory. It never was more violently agitated than in my consulship, that debts should not be paid; the matter was tried in arms and camps, by every rank and description of men, whom I resisted in such a manner, that this mischief of such magnitude was removed from the state. Never was debt either greater, or better and more easily paid. For the hope of defrauding being frustrated, the necessity of paying followed. But on the other hand, this man, now our victor,* but who was vanquished then, has accomplished the things which he had in view, when it was now a matter of no importance to himself. So great was the desire in him of doing wrong, that the mere wrongdoing delighted him, although there was not a motive for it. From this kind of liberality, then, to give to some, to take from others, they will keep aloof who would preserve the commonwealth, and will take particular care that each may hold his own in equity of right and judgments; and neither that advantage be taken of the poorer class, on account of their humbleness, nor that envy be prejudicial to the rich, either in keeping or recovering their own. They will besides increase the power of the state in whatever way they can, either abroad or at home, in authority, territories, tributes. These are the duties of great men. These were practised among our ancestors; they who persevere in those kinds of duties, will, along with the highest advantage to the republic, themselves obtain both great popularity and glory.

Now, in these precepts about things profitable, Antipater the Tyrian, a Stoic, who lately died at Athens, considers that two things are passed over by Panatius-the care of health and of property-which matters I fancy were passed over by that very eminent philosopher because they were obvious; they certainly are useful. Now, health is supported by understanding one's own constitution, and by observing what things are accustomed to do one good or injury†; and by temperance

* Cæsar, who was suspected of a share in Cataline's conspiracy, afterwards, in the first year of his dictatorship, when he was himself no longer in debt, passed a law, abolishing the fourth part of all debts.

+ Lord Bacon might be supposed to have had this passage before him

in all food and manner of living, for the sake of preserving the body; and by forbearance in pleasures; and lastly, by the skill of those to whose profession these things belong. Wealth ought to be acquired by those means in which there is no disgrace, but preserved by diligence and frugality, and increased, too, by the same means. These matters Xenophon, the Socratic philosopher, has discussed very completely in that book which is entitled Economics, which I, when I was about that age at which you are now, translated from the Greek into Latin.

XXV. But a comparison of profitable things, since this was the fourth head, but passed over by Panatius, is often necessary. For it is usual to compare the good estate of the body with external advantages, and external with those of the body, and those of the body among themselves, and external with external. The good estate of the body is compared with external advantages in this manner, that you had rather be healthy than wealthy. External with those of the body in this manner, to be wealthy rather than of the greatest physical strength. Those of the body among themselves, thus, that good health should be preferred to pleasure, and strength to speed. But the comparison of external objects is thus, that glory should be preferred to wealth, a city income to a country one. Of which kind of comparison is that reply of Cato the elder, of whom, when inquiry was made, what was the best policy in the management of one's property, he answered, "Good grazing." "What was next?" "Tolerable grazing." "What third ?" "Bad grazing." "Tilling." And when he who had interrogated him inquired, "What do you think of lending usury ?" Then Cato answered, "What do you think of killing a man ?”* From which, and many other things, it

"What fourth ?"

at

when he wrote the first paragraph of his thirtieth Essay on Regimen of Health." "There is a wisdom in this beyond the rules of physic; a man's own observation, what he finds good of, and what he finds hurt of, is the best physic to preserve health; but it is a safer conclusion to say This agreeth not well with me, therefore I will not continue it,' than this, 'I find no offence of this, therefore I may use it,' for strength of nature in youth passes over many excesses which are owing a man till his age. Discern of the coming on of years, and think not to do the same things still; for age will not be defied."-Bacon's Essays, Thirtieth Essay.

"Many have made witty invectives against usury. They say that it is a

Ι

ought to be understood that it is usual to make comparisons of profitable things; and that this was rightly added as a fourth head of investigating our duties. But about this entire head, about gaining money, about letting it out, also about spending it, the matter is discussed to more advantage by certain most estimable persons* sitting at the middle Janus, than by any philosophers in any school. Yet these things ought to be understood; for they relate to utility, about which we have discoursed in this book. We will next pass to what remains.

pity the devil should have God's part, which is the tithe; that the usurer is the greatest sabbath breaker, because his plough goeth every Sunday; that the usurer is the drone that Virgil speaketh of :

'Ignavum fucos pecus a præsepibus arcent:'

that the usurer breaketh the first law that was made for mankind after the fall which was, 'in sudore vultus tui comedes panem tuum' not 'in sudore vultus alieni: that usurers should have orange-tawny bonnets, because they do judaise; that it is against nature for money to beget money, and the like. I say this only, that usury is a concessum propter duritiem cordis:' for since there must be borrowing and lending, and men are so hard of heart as they will not lend freely, usury must be permitted. Some others have made suspicious and cunning propositions of banks, discovery of men's estates, and other inventions; but few have spoken of usury usefully."-Bacon's Essays, Essay 41.

He is speaking ironically of the usurers, numbers of whom frequented the middle Janus in the forum.

END OF SECOND BOOK.