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ental ideas, doctrines and customs, to the early Christians, and the state of the world, in the beginning of the Christian æra, was peculiarly fitted to favor its growth. The continual prevalence of bloody wars and civil commotions, at this period, must have made retirement and religious meditation agreeable to men of quiet and contemplative minds. Accordingly, we find, in the first centuries of our æra, very eminent and virtuous men among the anachorets, e. g., St. Augustin. This spirit, however, as might have been expected, soon led to fanatical excesses. All the horrid penances of the East were introduced among Christian hermits; and we find, at the close of the 4th century, Simeon Stylites passing 30 years on the top of a column, without ever descending from it, and finally dying there. Though we must needs pity such unhappy delusion, such a moral insanity, we cannot help acknowledging the strong power of will exhibited in this and many other instances of a similar kind. In fact, the spirit of retirement and self-torment raged like an epidemic among the early Christians in the East. In Egypt and Syria, where Christianity became blended with the Grecian philosophy, and strongly tinged with the peculiar notions of the East, the anachorets were most numerous; and from those who lived in cells, in the vicinity of a church (such as Moore describes in the Epicurean), the convents of a later period sprung, which were filled with inmates anxious to escape from the tumult and bloodshed, which marked the beginning of the middle ages. Early in the 7th century, the councils began to lay down rules for the order of anachorets. The Trullan canons say "Those who affect to be anachorets shall first, for 3 years, be confined to a cell in a monastery; and if, after this, they profess that they persist, let them be examined by the bishop or abbot, let them live one year at large, and, if they still approve of their first choice, let them be confined to their cell, and not be permitted to go out of it but by the consent and after the benediction of the bishop, in case of great necessity." Frequently, at this period, the monks of various abbeys would select from among them a brother, who was thought to be most exemplary in his profession, and devote him to entire seclusion, as an honor, and to give him the greater opportunity of indulging his religious contemplations. In Fosbrook's Monachism, (4to., 1817), the ceremony by which an anachoret was consecrated to seclusion from the 20

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world is described at length. The cells in which the anachorets lived were, according to some rules, only 12 feet square, of stone, with 3 windows. The door was locked upon the anachoret, and often walled up. The cell which is said to have been occupied by St. Dunstan, at Glastonbury, was, according to Osborn, in his life of that monk, not more than 5 feet long, 2 feet broad, and barely the height of a man. Here the recluse passed his time in ingenious self-torture; e. g. in eternal silence, heavy chains, severe flagellations, singing psalms in cold water during winter nights, &c. Tantum relligio potuit suadere malorum! This species of devotion, originally introduced, as we have said, from the warm climate of the East, found many more adherents in the south of Europe than in the north. With the revival of science, and the consequent diffusion of more liberal views, the strictest kind of anachorets have almost entirely disappeared. Few men now retire to any seclusion more strict than that of a convent. Some persons, who pass a solitary life in the neighborhood of Rome, call themselves anchorites; but in India, the practice still prevails in all its severity.

ANACLETUS; two popes of this name. The first is said to have suffered death as a martyr, A. D. 91. All the other stories respecting him, e. g., that he divided Rome into 25 parishes, are uncertain.— The second, the grandson of a baptized Jew, at first called Peter de Leon, was a monk in Clugny, a cardinal and papal legate in France and England, and, in 1130, competitor for the papal chair, against Innocent II. Rome, Milan and Sicily were on his side, and Roger of Sicily received from him the royal title. He also maintained himself against Lothaire II, and died 1138.

ANACOLUTHON, in grammar and rhetoric; a want of coherency. This often arises from want of attention on the part of an orator or author. Such an omission may proceed from passionate feeling, and the anacoluthon may then become a beauty. Many anacolutha are peculiar to certain languages.

ANACREON, whom the Greeks esteem one of their 9 greatest lyric poets, was born at Teos, in Ionia, and flourished about 500 B. C. Polycrates, king of Samos, invited him to his court, and bestowed on him his friendship. Here A. composed his songs, inspired by wine and love. After the death of his protector, he went to Athens, where he met with the most distinguished reception from

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Hipparchus. The fall of the latter drove him from Athens, and, probably, he returned to Teos. But when Ionia revolted from Darius, he fled to Abdera, where he passed a gay and happy old age, and died in his 85th year. According to tradition, he was choked by a grape-stone. The city of Teos put his likeness upon its coins; his statue was placed on the Acropolis, in Athens, and he was held in honor throughout Greece. Only a small part of his works has come down to us. Öf 5 books, there are 68 poems remaining, under the name of A. Among these, criticism acknowledges but few as genuine. Those generally believed to be A.'s are models of delicate grace, simplicity and ease. The difficulty of attaining these excellences is proved by numberless unsuccessful imitations, unworthy of the name of Anacreontics. The measure in which A. composed his poems, and which is called after him, is commonly divided into 3 iambuses, with a cæsura. But, according to Hermann, it consists of the Ionic a majore, with the anacrusis:

Among the best editions are that of Fischer (Leipsic, 1793), and that of Brunck (Strasburg, 1786, last edition). The latest are that of Moebius, 1810, and that of Mehlhorn, 1825.

ANADYOMENE (Greek; she who comes forth); a name given to Venus, when she was represented as rising from the sea. Apelles painted her rising from the waves, and, according to some writers, Campaspe, the mistress of Alexander, according to others, the famous courtesan Phryne, served him as a model. Of the latter it is related, that she threw off her clothes, at a feast in honor of Neptune at Eleusis, in presence of many spectators, loosened her hair, and bathed in the sea, in order to give the painter a lively idea of the Venus Anadyomene. In the reign of Augustus, this picture was brought to Rome. Antipater of Sidon, in the Anthology, and also other poets, have celebrated its beauty.

ANAGNOSTA, OF ANAGNOSTES, in antiquity; a kind of literary servant, whose chief business it was to read to his master during meals. They are first mentioned by Cicero. Atticus, according to Corn. Nepos, always had an anagnostes to read to him at supper. In many convents, one of the monks still reads aloud, while the others take their meal. Charlemagne, too, heard reading during dinner

and supper, generally on historical subjects.

ANAGOGY (from the Greek ava and yw); one of the various modes of interpreting the text of the Bible.-To explain anagogically means, to apply the literal sense of the text to heavenly things; for instance, to treat the Sabbath as a symbol of the rest in heaven. Of such explanations, frequent use was made in earlier times, particularly in sermons and religious books. The bride and the bridegroom, in Solomon's Song, were and are often still referred to Christ as the bridegroom, and to his church as the bride; and the application of this figure was frequently carried to an indelicate extreme. Even now, such extravagances of a disordered imagination seem to be favored, in many places, by the spirit of mysticism.-Anagogy, in medicine, signifies the return of humors, or the rejection of blood from the lungs by the mouth.

ANAGRAM (from the Greek ava and roua); in its proper sense, the letters of one or several words read backwards; thus, evil is an anagram of live. In a wider sense, it means a transposition of letters, to form a new word or phrase; for instance, tone and note. An anagram is called impure, if, in their transposition, all the letters of the given words are not used. In former times, such plays of ingenuity were popular, and we frequently find, in old inscriptions, the year and date indicated by means of an anagram. An anagram of Berolinum is Lumen orbi. Calvin, in the title of his Institutions, called himself Alcuinus, by an anagram of his name, Calvinus. In a similar way, the words Revolution Française include the words Un Corse la finira, and the significant Veto. The question of Pilate to Christ, Quid est veritas? gives the anagram-Est vir qui adest. Dr. Burney's anagram of Horatio Nelson is one of the happiest;-Honor est a Nilo. The name of William Noy, attorney-general to Charles I, a laborious lawyer, affords the anagram, I moyl (toil) in law. A very curious work respecting the subject of this article is, Z. Celspirii (Christ. Serpilii) de Anagrammatismo Libri ii. quorum prior Theoriam, posterior Anagrammatographos celebriores, cum Appendice selectorum Anagrammatum exhibet; Ratisbonæ, 1713, in 8vo.

ANALECTA (from the Greek avaiéyw, I gather); extracts from different works; e. g., analecta of philosophy, of history and of literature. A periodical of the famous philologist, Wolf, was called Analecta.—

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With the ancients, analecta signified a servant, whose business it was to gather up what fell from the tables, at meals, as the pavements of the Roman floors sometimes were too finely inlaid to admit of sweeping.

ANALOGY originally denotes a relation, similarity or agreement of things in certain respects. The knowledge which rests merely on this relation is called analogical. The conclusion deduced from the similarity of things in certain respects, that they are similar, also, in other respects, is called, in logic, an analogical conclusion, and amounts only to a probability. This reasoning is applied to the explanation of authors (analogia interpretationis), and particularly to the interpretation of the Holy Scriptures, in which consistency of doctrine is taken for granted (analogia fidei). It is also used in the application of the laws, to form a judgment, in any particular case, by a comparison of former decisions in similar cases. In practical medicine, it is used in the application of remedies.-A great part of the principles of experimental philosophy are established by inferring a further uniformity from that which has been already settled.-In grammar, by analogy is meant a conformity in the organization of words.-In mathematics, it is the similitude of certain proportions. -Newton gives analogy the second place amongst his laws of philosophizing, and may be said to have established some of the most characteristic parts of his system, as arising out of the doctrine of gravitation, on its sober and patient use. In fact, analogical reasoning is essential in inductive philosophy, though it must be used with caution. The history of philosophy shows innumerable instances of the wildest errors, as well as of the sublimest discoveries arising from its application. The modern philosophy of Germany has suffered much in point of correctness and clearness, from several bold speculators, led away by fancied analogies between the moral and physical world; though it cannot be denied, that much of the progress of that nation in philosophical investigations is due to the use of the same instrument.

ANALYSIS, in philosophy; the mode of resolving a compound idea into its simple parts, in order to consider them more distinctly, and arrive at a more precise knowledge of the whole. It is opposed to synthesis, by which we combine and class our perceptions, and contrive expressions for our thoughts, so as to repre

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sent their several divisions, classes and relations. Analysis is regressive, searching into principles; synthesis is progressive, carrying forward acknowledged truths to their application.-Analysis, in mathematics, is, in the widest sense, the expression and developement of the functions of quantities by calculation. There are two ways of representing the relations between quantities, to wit, by construction, and by calculation. Pure geometry determines all magnitudes by construction, i. e., by the mental drawing of lines, whose intersections give the proposed quantities; analysis, on the contrary, makes use of symbolical formulæ, called equations, to express relations. In this widest extent of the idea of analysis, algebra, assisted by literal arithmetic, appears as the first part of the system. Analysis, in a narrower sense, is distinguished from algebra, inasmuch as it considers quantities in a different point of view. While algebra speaks of the known and unknown, analysis treats of the unchanging or constant, and of the changing or variable. The algebraic equation, x2 + a x b=0, for example, seeks an expression for the unknown x by means of the known a and b; but the analytical equation, y2: ax, expresses the law of the formation of the variable y, by means of the variable x, together with the constant a.-In its application to geometry, analysis seeks by calculation the geometrical magnitudes for an assumed or undetermined unit. The analysis of the ancients was exhibited only in geometry, and made use only of geometrical assistance, whereby it is distinguished from the analysis of the moderns, which, as before said, extends to all measurable objects, and expresses in equations the mutual dependence of magnitudes. But analysis and algebra resemble each other in this, that both, as is shown more fully in the article on algebra, reason in a language, into the expressions of which certain conditions are translated, and then, according to the rules of the language, are treated more fully, in order to arrive at the result. Analysis, when considered in this light, appears to be the widest extent of the province of this language. Analysis, in the more limited sense, is divided into lower and higher, the bounds of which run very much into one another, because many branches of learning are accessible in both ways. While we comprise in lower analysis, besides arithmetic and algebra, the doctrines of functions, of series, combinations, logarithms and curves, we

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comprehend in the higher the differential and integral calculus, which are also included in the name infinitesimal calculus; the first of which the French consider as belonging, in a wider sense, to the théorie des fonctions analytiques.—A good account of the ancient analysis is given by Pappus of Alexandria, a mathematician of the 4th century, in his Collection of Geometrical Problems,* in which there is also a list of the analytical writings of the ancients. What progress was made after the destruction of the Roman empire, particularly by the Arabians, in algebraical, and, as interwoven with them, in analytical inquiries, has been related in the article on algebra. Newton and Leibnitz (q. v.) invented the above-mentioned infinitesimal calculus. After them, Euler and the brothers Bernoulli (q. v.) labored with splendid success for the further improvement of mathematical analysis; and, in later times, d'Alembert, Laplace, Lagrange, &c. have raised it still higher. Hindenburg (q. v.) is the inventor of the analysis of combinations. We have not room here to go into detail with respect to the other analytical doctrines.-Euler's Introductio in Analysin Infinitorum, Lausanne, 1748, 2 vols. (new ed., Leyden, 1797) still continues one of the most important works, in regard to the analysis of finite quantities. In close connexion with this stands the same author's Institutiones Calculi differentialis, Petersburg, 1755, 4to. Lagrange's Théorie des Fonctions Analytiques (new ed., Paris, 1813, 4to.) is, on account of the depth of its views and its many valuable applications to geometry and mechanics, a valuable work for the study of the connexion between the analysis of finite quantities, and the so named (though, indeed, here considered in a very different light) calculation of infinities. As this work cannot be understood without a good acquaintance with general and very abstract calculations, we would connect with it the same author's Leçons sur le Calcul des Fonctions (new ed., Paris, 1806). Arbogast's Calcul des Derivations, Strasburg, 1800, 4to., is new in its views of the analysis of finite quantities. The most excellent of the old works on the integral calculus is Euler's Institutiones Calculi Integralis, Petersburg, 1768-1770, 3 * There is a Latin translation of it by Commandinus-Mathemat. Collationes, Commentariis illustrata, Bonn, 1659, folio. The Greek text is not published.

It has this title on account of the application which is here made of the idea of the infinite, and its connexion with the higher analysis.

vols., 4to. The present state of the integral calculus, after the improvements of the French analysts, may be learned from Lacroix's Traité du Calcul différentiel et du Calcul intégral, Paris, 1797 and seq., 3 vols., 4to. (There has since appeared a new edition.)-For beginners, we recommend Pasquich's Mathematical Analysis, Leipsic, 1791, and, for more advanced students, the same author's Elementa Analyseos sublimioris, Leipsic, 1799, 4to. Nürnberger's Exposition of the Formation of all derived Functions, Hamburg, 1821, treats this subject in a new point of view. For A. in chemistry, see Chemistry.

ANAMORPHOSIS; a perspective projection of any thing, so that it shall appear at one point of view deformed; at another, an exact representation.

ANAPEST. (See Rhythm.)

ANANAS, in botany; a species of bromelia, commonly called pine-apple (q. v.), from the similarity of its shape to the cones of firs and pines.

ANAPHORA (Greek, aragoga, repetition); a rhetorical figure, which consists in the repetition of the same word or phrase at the beginning of several successive sentences. A similar repetition at the end of sentences is called epiphora, or homoioteleuton. Anaphora is sometimes used as the general name for both figures; the former is then called epanaphora. The anaphora aims to increase the energy of the phrase, but is often rendered ineffectual by too frequent repetition.

ANASTASIUS I, emperor of the East, succeeded Zeno, A. D. 491. He distinguished himself by his moderation towards different Christian sects, whose quarrels at that time disturbed the peace and safety of the Byzantine empire. Moreover, he repealed a very heavy tax, called chrysargyrum, and prohibited the fighting with wild beasts. He died A. D. 518, after a reign of 27 years.-A. II was another emperor of the East, dethroned by Theodosius, in 719, and afterwards put to death.-A., surnamed Bibliothecarius, a Roman abbot, keeper of the Vatican library, and one of the most learned men in the 9th century, assisted, in 829, at the 4th general council, the acts and canons of which he translated from the Greek into Latin. He also composed the lives of several popes, and other works, the best edition of which is that of the Vatican, 4 vols. fol., 1718.

ANATHEMA (cursed by God) is the form of excommunication from the church. Hence, to pronounce the anathema, or to anathematize, means, in the Roman Cath

olic church, to excommunicate the living from the church, and the dead from salvation. How important an instrument of spiritual power the anathema was, in the hands of the popes, in the middle ages, how much disorder they gave rise to, and how little they have been regarded in modern times, is matter of history. Napoleon died in excommunication, and yet a priest attended him, and the circumstance is hardly mentioned.-Originally, the word was applied to various persons and things separated from ordinary life or uses to the will of a real or supposed deity, a gift hung up in a temple, and dedicated to some god, a votive offering; but, as the word is derived from avatívnu (to separate), it has been, in later ages, used for expulsion, curse. The Greek and Roman Catholic churches both make use of the anathema. In the latter, it can be pronounced only by a pope, council, or some of the superior clergy. The subject of the anathema is declared an outcast from the Catholic church, all Catholics are forbidden to associate with him, and utter destruction is denounced against him, both body and soul. The curse is terrible. Mere excommunication is less severe. The heretic has also to anathematize his errors. Once in every year, the pope publicly repeats the anathema against all heretics, amongst whom the Protestants, Luther, &c., are mentioned. When councils declare any belief heretical, the declaration is couched in the following form: Si quis dixerit, &c., anathema sit, which often occurs in the decisions of the councils. (See Excommunication.) ANATOMICAL PREPARATIONS. Dead bodies and parts of bodies, notwithstanding their tendency to decomposition, can be preserved by art. It is important to the physician, for the determination of the medical treatment proper in similar cases, to preserve the organs, which have been attacked by diseases, in their diseased state, and, as a counterpart, the same organ in its sound condition. The anatomical preparations of healthy parts may serve for instruction in anatomy. Preparations of this sort can be preserved either by drying them, as is done with skeletons, or by putting them into liquids, e. g., alcohol, spirits of turpentine, &c., as is done with the intestines and the other soft parts of the body, or by injection. The injection is used with vessels, the course and distribution of which are to be made sensible, and the shape of which is to be retained. The beginning of the vessel, e. g., the aorta among the arteries,

is filled, by means of a syringe, with a soft, colored mass, which penetrates into all, even the smallest branches of the vessels, dries them, and makes them visible. The finest capillary vessels may be thus made perfectly distinguishable. The infusion usually consists of a mixture of soap, pitch, oil and turpentine, to which is added a coloring substance; for instance, red for the arteries, green or blue for the veins, white for the lymphatic vessels. For very fine vessels, e. g., for the absorbing lymphatic vessels, quicksilver is preferred, on account of its extreme divisibility. Dried preparations are the bones, cleared of all the soft parts by boiling, and bleached, or any of the soft parts, covered with a protecting but transparent varnish; e. g., muscles, intestines, &c. The quicker the drying of the organs destined for preparation can be effected, the better they will be preserved. For the purpose of preserving them, alcohol is used; the more colorless, the better. Spirits of wine, distilled with pepper, or very strong pimento, are also used, together with some muriatic acid. Washing with acids (lately, pyro-ligneous acid has been used) gives to the preparation sometimes firmness, and sometimes whiteness. Washing is particularly necessary with bones which are in a state of putrefaction. Muscles are usually tanned; and all that is in danger of being eaten by worms, or injured by a damp atmosphere, is covered with a suitable varnish. tions treated thus are fixed upon a solid body, or in a frame. Preparations preserved in liquids are usually kept in transparent glasses, hermetically sealed, to secure them from the destroying influences of dust, air, humidity, heat, cold, the sun, insects, &c. Damaged preparations can seldom be perfectly restored.

The prepara

ANATOMY (Greek, avatuveir, to dissect); the art of dissection; that of brutes is frequently called zootomy. Anatomy is a part of natural history, and is one of the most important branches of the science of medicine. The dissection of the human body was but little practised by the ancients. The old Egyptians held it in great abhorrence, and even pursued with stones those men, who, in embalming the dead, were obliged to cut open their bodies. The Greeks were prevented by the principles of their religion from studying anatomy, since these required them to bury the bodies of the deceased as soon as possible. Even in the time of Hippocrates, anatomical knowledge was imperfect, and was probably derived from the

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