superstition by which they are supported. BOOK-KEEPING is a mercantile term, used to denote the method of keeping commercial accounts, of all kinds, in such a manner, that a man may thereby know, at any time, the true state of his affairs, with clearness and expedition. Bookkeeping rests, like commerce in general, on the notions of debtor and creditor, or on the notions of that which we possess or are to receive, and that which we are to pay, and is divided into single, and double or Italian book-keeping. In the first, the posts of debtor and creditor are separated from each other, and entered in such a way, that each one appears singly; while, in the latter, creditor and debtor are in continual mutual connexion, to which end all the posts are entered doubly, once on the debtor and once on the creditor side, by which every error or mistake is prevented. This mode of double book-keeping sprung up in Italy, in the 15th century; yet it had been practised already in Spain in the 14th century, according to a legal ordinance. The principle of this system is, that all money and articles received become debtors to him from whom they are received, and, on the other hand, all those who receive money or goods from us become debtors to cash or to the goods. The books which the merchant wants are principally a waste-book, in which all his dealings are recorded without particular order; a journal, in which the contents of the waste-book are separated every month, and entered on the debtor and creditor sides; and a leger, in which the posts entered in the journal are placed under particular accounts, and from which, every year, the balance is drawn.

BOOK-TRADE, BOOKSELLERS. Before the invention of typography, those who copied books carried on the trade in them. In Greece, in Alexandria, and in Rome, there were booksellers who kept a number of transcribers. In the middle ages, there were booksellers, called sta tionarii, at the universities of Bologna and Paris, who loaned single manuscripts at high prices. In Paris, after 1342, no one could deal in books without the permission of the university, who had particular officers to examine the manuscripts and fix the price. After the invention of printing, the printers were also the booksellers. Faustus, the first bookseller, carried his printed Bibles for sale to France. Those who had formerly been employed in copying now acted as agents of the

printers, and carried the printed copies into the monasteries for sale. Towards the end of the 15th century, there were such book traders in Ulm, Nordlingen and Augsburg. The first bookseller who purchased manuscripts from the authors, and had them printed by others, without possessing a press of his own, was John Otto, in Nuremburg (1516). In Leipsic, there were, for the first tire in 1545, two booksellers of this kind-Steiger and Boskopf. The books were carried to Frankfort on the Maine to the fair. The bookfair at Leipsic did not become importar until a later period: in 1667, it was attended by 19 foreign booksellers. The Leipsic catalogue of books appeared as early as 1600. The booksellers of the present day may be divided into printers who sell their own publications (they have become rare), booksellers who sell the books which have been printed at their expense by others, and those who keep for sale the publications of others. The last have, usually, at the same time, publications of their own, which they sell or exchange with others. This trade is promoted, in Germany, chiefly by the book-fairs at Leipsic, of which the Easter fair is frequented by all the booksellers of Germany, and by tike et soine of the neighboring countries as of France, Switzerland, Denmark, Livonia, in order to settle their mutual accounts, and to form new connexions. The German publisher sends his publications to the keeper of assortments, à condition, that is, on commission for a certain time, after which the latter pays for what have been sold, and can return what have not been sold. This is not so favorable for the publisher as the custom in the French book-trade, where the keeper of assortments takes the quantity he wants at a fixed rate. In the German book-trade, it is the practice for almost every house, either in the country or abroad, which publishes or sells German books, to have its agent at Leipsic, who receives and distributes its publications. A. in Riga, who publishes a book calculated for the German trade, has his agent, B. in Leipsic, to whom he sends, free of expense, a number of copies of his publication, that he may distribute the new work to all the booksellers with whom he is connected, from Vienna to Hamburg, and from Strasburg to Königsberg, each of whom has his agent in Leipsic. Instructions are also given as to the number of copies to be sent to each. B. delivers those copies in Leipsic to the agents, who send them

every week, or more or less frequently, by the post, or by carriers, at the expense of the receiver. C., in Strasburg, who finds that he has not received copies enough, writes for an additional number of copies to his agent, D., in Leipsic. D. gives this order to B., who delivers the number wanted to D., to be transmitted to C. This arrangement is advantageous to the German book-trade as well as to Leipsic. The dealer receives every thing free to Leipsic, and, as a great number of packets, with books from all parts of Germany, arrive there for him every week, he can have them packed together and sent at once. The freight is thus much less than if the packets were sent to him separately from the different places, and the whole business is simplified. The booksellers are also enabled to agree with greater ease on a certain discount per cent. In other European countries, for instance, in England and France, no such connexion of the booksellers has yet been formed. Paris is the central place of the French book-trade. In Great Britain, Edinburgh rivals London. In the Netherlands, the most important repositories of books are at Amsterdam, Utrecht, Leyden and Haerlem. In Brussels and Liege, many French works are reprinted. In Germany, several houses rarely unite for the publication of great works, as is done in France and England. In 1802, the booksellers of the U. States established a fair at New York, and rules for its regulation. In Spain and Portugal, the price of every book is regulated by the government.

BOOKS, CATALOGUES OF. Catalogues of books are interesting if the libraries they describe contain a great number of works (Bibliotheca Thottiana, Copenhagen, 1789 -95,7 parts, in 12 vols.; Bibliotheca Firmiana, Milan, 1783, 6 vols.; Catalogue du Duc de la Vallière, Paris, 1783-88, 9 vols.), or are distinguished by well-selected, by rare and costly works (Cat. Bibl. Harleiana, by Michael Maittaire, London, 1743-45, 5 vols.), or by scarce books merely (Catalogue of Sam. Engel, Bern, 1743, and Dan. Sulthen, Königsberg, 1751), by old editions (J. F. Dibdin, Biblioth. Spenceriana, London, 1814, 4 Vols.; Ferd. Fossii, Cat. Codd. Sec. 15 Impressor. Bibl. Magliabecchiana, Florence, 1793, 3 vols. fol.), by beautiful copies, particularly on parchment (Cat. de la Bibl. de McCarthy, Paris, 1815, 2 vols.), or by being very rich in some particular department. For natural history, the most uuportant catalogues are those of sir Jos. Banks (London, 1796, 5 vols.), and of

Cobres (Augsburg, 1782, 2 vols.); for Hungarian history, that of count Szecheny (Sopronii, 1799 et seq.); for classical literature, those of count Rewiczky (Berlin, 1794), and of Askew (London, 1775), with some others; for French literature, the second part of the catalogue of Vallière for Italian literature, the catalogues of Capponi (Rome, 1747, 4 vols.), Floncel (Paris, 1774, 2 vols.), and Ginguené (Paris, 1817); for the German language, that of Adelung (Dresden, 1807). Catalogues acquire their true value and utility by judicious arrangement and accuracy of detail. For this purpose, besides perfect exactness in the material statements which must prevail throughout, and especially with regard to uncommon works, a notice of the printer, number of pages, signatures, catchwords, &c., and, in engravings, an account of the number and quality of the impressions, and the artist's name, are necessary. Above all, a clear arrangement of the books is requisite, that they may be easily consulted. In this department, the French took the lead. Gabriel Naudé opened the way by the Catalogus Bibliotheca Cordesiana (Paris, 1643, 4 vols.): he was followed by Ishmael Bullialdus and Jos. Quesnel, in the Cat. Bib. Thuana (Paris, 1679). Gabriel Martin, a bookseller at Paris, distinguished himself, in the 18th century, by a further attention to the method of arrangement, and, at the same time, by bibliographical accuracy, (Catalogues of Bulteau, 1711, du Fay, 1725, Brochard, 1729, count Hoym, 1738). On the foundation laid by Martin, Debure built, in the catalogue of Gaignat, 1769; and, in the preparation of the first part of Vallière's catalogue, as well as in the arrangement of the second part, the bookseller Nyon followed him with success. About this time, Jac. Morelli, in Venice, published a catalogue of the excellent library of Maffeo Pinelli (Venice, 1787, 6 vols.), distinguished by similar merits. All these catalogues, however, were prepared only to facilitate the sale of the books enumerated, and aspired to nothing higher. The earlier catalogues of the Bodleian (Oxford, 1738, 2 vols. fol.) and Parisian libraries (1739, 6 vols. fol.) are very defective. John Michael Francke, in his catalogue of the library of Bunau (Leipsic, 1750,7 vols. 4to.), and Audiffredi, in the alphabetica. catalogue of the library of Casanati (Rome, 1761, vols. fol.), have distinguished themselves as scientific bibliothecarians. Both works, though incomplete, are excellent models. Catalogus Biblioth. Aca

demia Theresiana, by Joseph de Sartori (Vienna, 1801, 13 vols. 4to.), is full of erors and defects, and is by no means to Je compared to the former of the abovementioned works. There are, lastly, critical catalogues (cat. raisonnés) which contain more minute information and opinions, descriptions of uncommon and remarkable books, and sometimes accounts of their prices. Besides the few generally interesting works of this nature by John Fabricius (Wolfenb., 1717, 6 vols. 4to.), Jac. Fred. Reimmann (Hildesh., 1731, 2 vols.), Gotlieb Stolle (Jena, 1733, 18 vols. 4to.), and others, the catalogues of Crevenna (Amsterdam, 1778, 6 vols. 4to.), Serna Santander (Brussels, 1803, 5 vols.), and lord Spencer (see above), and Denis's Memorabilia of the Library of Garelli (Vienna, 1780, 4to.) are very valuable. BOOKS, CENSORSHIP OF. Unless we consider the burning of condemned books under the Roman emperors as a censorship, the establishment of this institution must be attributed to the popes; but it cannot be denied, that it would have sprung up in a thousand other places, even if it had not existed in their dominions. Soon after the invention of printing, the popes perceived the influence which this art exerted over the diffusion of knowledge. It was, besides, doubly dangerous at a time when the authority of the church had been assailed, and was shaking under the load of its abuses. They endeavored, therefore, to prohibit first the reading, and secondly the printing, of certain literary works. They enforced the ancient decrees of the church against the reading of heretical books, and introduced an ecclesiastical superintendency of the press in 1479 and 1496 which was more completely established by a bull of Leo X, in 1515. In this, the bishops and inquisitors were required to examine all works before they were printed, and thus to prevent the publication of heretical opinions. They went still further: as this papal decree could not be carried into execution in all countries, on account of the reformation, they prepared an index of books which nobody was allowed to read under penalty of the censure of the church. This index was commenced by the council of Trent, in the fourth session of which (1546), the decree of the censorship was renewed; but it was not executed, and was finally left to the popes (25th session of 1563), by whom several such Indices Librorum prohibitorum have been published. Even in recent times, in 1758, such an augmented

index was issued. Works of an established character, which could not well be prohibited, it was determined to expurgate. The duke of Alva caused such an Index expurgatorius to be prepared in the Netherlands; another was drawn up at Rome, in 1607, which, however, with the exception of some fragments, has remained secret. This censorship was soon afterwards adopted by the secular authority, and, in some respects, extended still further. In Germany, the politico-theological controversies gave the first occasion for the introduction of this institution, as they were carried on with the greatest violence on both sides. The decree of the German diet, in 1524, prohibited them. By the diet of 1530, a more severe superintendence of the press was established; and this was confirined by later laws of the empire, in 1541, 1548, 1567, and 1577, &c. It was also provided, at the peace of Westphalia, 1648 (Osnabr. Instr., chapter v, § 50), that the states should not suffer attacks on religious parties: From that time, the emperors have promised, in their elective capitulations, to watch strictly over the fulfilment of this article. In the capitulations of the emperor Leopold II, 1790, and of the emperor Francis II, it was further added (art. vi, § 8), "that no work should be printed, which could not be reconciled with the symbolical books of both Catholics and Protestants, and with good morals, or which might produce the ruin of the existing constitution, or the disturbance of public peace. It was, however, not difficult, in most Protestant countries, for individual authors or literary journals to obtain an exemption from the censorship; and many institutions, academies, universities, &c., were privileged in this way, as far as concerned their regular professors. The governments sometimes protected their subjects with great energy; as, for instance, that of Hanover, in the case of Putter and Schloezer. In France, the censorship belonged to the department of the chancellor, and was administered by royal censors. It was first abolished in England. It was formerly exercised by the well-known star-chamber, and, after the abolition of this court, in 1641, by the parliament. In 1662, it was regulated by a particular statute, but only for a certain number of years. This statute was renewed in 1679, and again, in 1692, for two years more. In 1694, the right of the crown to render the printing of writings, journals, &c. dependent on its permission, that is, the

censorship, ceased entirely. In Holland, and even in the Austrian Netherlands, a great liberty, if not an entire freedom of the press, prevailed. All that was not permitted to be printed in France appeared in the Netherlands or in Switzerland, at Lausanne and Geneva, to the great advantage of the Dutch and Swiss book-trade. In Sweden, by an edict of 1766, and accordingly under the aristocratical constitution, the abolition of the censorship was ordered; yet Gustavus III, personally a friend to the liberty of the press, was obliged to retain the censorship, and even to execute it with severity, during the aristocratical machinations which disturbed his reign, and which were but imperfectly counteracted in the revolution of 1771. Gustavus IV issued an edict soon after he ascended the throne, by which the censorship was retained only in matters of religion, and was administered by the consistories. This, however, was not permanent: at first, penalties were enacted, and, in 1802, the censorship was entirely reestablished, committed to the chancellor of the court, and executed with severity. French and German books were prohibited. King Charles XIII, immediately after his ascension to the throne, abolished it entirely by a provisional order of April 12, 1809, which was confirmed, as an article of the constitution (§ 86), June 6, 1809. In Denmark, by a royal rescript of Sept. 14, 1770 (under the minister Struensee), the censorship was wholly abolished; neither has it been restored, though the laws by which the liberty of the press has been regulated have been changing, and have sometimes been very oppressive. In France, the censorship, like so many other institutions, was annihilated by the revolution. All the constitutions, from 1791 to the Charte Constitutionelle of 1814, declare the liberty of the press one of the fundamental laws. During the republic, there was no censorship, but the revolutionary tribunals took its place. Napoicon restored it, in another form, by the decree of Feb. 5, 1810 (Direction de l'Imprimerie). Since the restoration, it has also undergone various changes. Books of more than 20 sheets have always remained free, but the censorship has been exercised over pamphlets and journals at different periods; for the last time, Aug. 15, 1824, just before the death of Louis XVIII: it was, however, abolished again by the present king, Sept. 29 of the same year. For the establishment of new political journals, the permission of the gov

ernment must be obtained, and bonds must be given by the editors. What changes will yet be made in France remains to be seen. The introduction of the censorship is demanded by one side, even in respect to books already published. In the kingdom of the Netherlands, the censorship is abolished by a fundamental statute of Aug. 24, 1815, art. 226. Even in the kingdom of Poland, this was formerly the case (constitution of Nov. 27, 1815, art. 16), but it has been restored by a decree of June 16, 1819 In the German states, the liberty of the press was much restrained till 1806, the state-attorney having till then had control over it. After 1814, several states abolished the censorship-Nassau (decree of May 4, 1814), Weimar (in the constitution, May 5, 1816), Würtemberg (decree of Jan. 30, 1817), Bavaria (May 26, 1818), grand-duchy of Hesse (constitution of Dec. 17, 1820, §35), though with very different provisions as to the responsibility of authors, printers and booksellers. (See Press, Laws of the.) In accordance with the unhappy decrees of Carlsbad, 1819, and the resolutions of the German diet of Sept. 20, 1819, the censorship in all the states of the German confederation has become one of the conditions of union, but only with regard to books of less than 20 sheets, and journals. These measures were, at first, adopted only for five years, but are, at present, continued indefinitely. In Russia and Austria, there is naturally a despotic censorship. In the U. States, a censorship has never existed. Besides the different degrees of severity with which the censorship is exercised in different countries, it may be divided into different kinds, according to the field which it embraces. 1. A general censorship of the book-trade and of the press, under which even foreign books cannot be sold without the consent of the censors, exists in Russia, Austria, Spain, &c. (Austria has, in the censorship of foreign books, four formulas: A. admittitur, entirely free; B. transeat, free, but without public advertisements for sale; c. erga schedam, to be sold only to public officers and literary men, on the delivery of a receipt; D. damnatur, entirely forbidden.) 2. A general censorship of the press, ex'tending only to books printed in the country, exists in Prussia (edict of Sept. 19, 1788; order of the cabinet of Dec. 28, 1824), where, however, a case once took place, in which the publications of a foreign bookseller, Brockhaus of Leipsic, were prohibited. 3. A limited censor

ship, only over works of less than 20 sheets, and journals, is at present the law in the states of the German confederation. See Press, Liberty of the.)

BOONE, Daniel, one of the first adventurers who penetrated into the wilds of Kentucky, was born in Virginia. He was, almost from his infancy, addicted to hunting in the woods. He emigrated early to North Carolina, then recently settled. Having determined to cross the wilderness bordering on the Cumberland mountains, in quest of the region of Kentucky, then little known, he set out on his expedition, with five companions, May 1, 1769. June 7, they arrived at Red river, north of the Kentucky. A short time afterwards, B. and one of his companions, John Stewart, were captured by a party of savages. They soon escaped, but could discover no traces of their friends, who had returned home. B. and Stewart would have been constrained to follow them, had not Squire B., the brother of Daniel, pursued their track from North Carolina, and relieved them with a few necessaries. Shortly afterwards, Stewart was killed by the Indians, and the two Boones were left the only white men in the wilderness. They passed the winter in a cabin. In May, 1770, B.'s brother returned home. In July of the same year, however, he came back, according to agreement. They then traversed the country to the Cumberland river, and, the following year, returned to their families, with a determination of removing with them to Kentucky. In September, 1773, B. commenced his removal to Kentucky, with his own, and five other families, and was joined by 40 men, who placed themselves under his guidance. Being attacked by the Indians, 6 of his men were slain, and the cattle belonging to the party dispersed. The survivors returned, in consequence, to the settlements on Clinch river, about 40 miles from the scene of action. A company of North Carolina, having formed a plan of purchasing the lands on the south ide of the Kentucky river from the southern Indians, employed B. to buy a tract of country, the limits of which were described to him. He performed the service, and, soon after, made a road from the settlements on the Holston to the Kentucky river, notwithstanding the incessant attacks of the Indians, in which 4 of his men were killed and 5 wounded. In Apr., 1775, he built a fort at a salt-spring, on the southern bank of the Kentucky, where Boonesborough is now situated. 17

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It consisted of a block-house and several cabins, enclosed with palisades. In 1777, he sustained two sieges in Boonesborough from the Indians, but repulsed them. In the following year, however, Feb. 7, B. was taken prisoner by the savages, while hunting, with a number of his men. May, they were conducted to Detroit, where they experienced great kindness from governor Hamilton, the British commander of that post. He even offered the Indians £100 for their prisoner, in order that he might liberate him on parole, but they would not part with him, having conceived for him sentiments of great affection and respect. On his return, he was adopted by one of the principal chiefs at Chilicothe, and might have been happy in this situation, had not the thoughts of his wife and children continually kept alive the desire of escape. This he effected one morning, having risen at the usual hunting hour, and departed, apparently for the woods, but in reality for Boonesborough. He arrived there on the 20th of June, after a journey of 160 miles, which he performed in 4 days, having eaten, it is said, but one meal during that time. On the 8th of August, a body of savages, to the number of 450, commanded by Canadian Frenchmen and some of their own chiefs, invested the fort, with British colors flying. B. was summoned to surrender, but announced his determination, and that of the garrison, who amounted to but 50 men, "to defend the fort as long as a man of them was alive." The enemy then resolved to obtain it by stratagem, and requested that nine of the principal persons of the garrison would come out and treat with them, promising terms so favorable, that the invitation was accepted. After the articles of the treaty had been signed, B. and his companions were told that it was customary, upon such occasions, among the Indians, for two of them to shake each white man by the hand, in order to evince the sincerity of their friendship. This was also agreed to; and, accordingly, two Indians ap proached each of the nine, and, taking his hand, grappled him, with the intent of making him prisoner. Their object being then immediately perceived, B. and his party extricated themselves, and retreated into the fort, amid a heavy fire from the savages. An attack was then quickly commenced, and continued until the 20th of August, when the enemy abandoned the siege. This was the last attempt of the Indians to possess themselves of Boonesborough. In October. as B. was