"Thence proceed the great elements, endued with peculiar powers, and mind with operations infinitely subtile, the unperishable cause of all apparent forms.

"This universe, therefore, is compacted from the minute portions of those seven divine and active principles, the great soul, or first emanation, consciousness, and five perceptions; a mutable universe from immutable ideas.

"Of created things, the most excellent are those which are animated; of the animated, those which subsist by intelligence; of the intelligent, mankind; and of men, the sacerdotal class.

"Of priests, those eminent in learning; of the learned, those who know their duty: of those who know it, such as perform it virtuously; and of the virtuous, those who seek beatitude from a perfect acquaintance with scriptural doctrine.

"The very birth of Brahmans is a constant incarnation of Dharma, God of justice; for the Brahman is born to promote justice, and to procure ultimate happiness.

"When a Brahman springs to light, he is born above the world, the chief of all creatures, assigned to guard the treasury of duties, religious and civil.

"The Brahman who studies this book, having performed sacred rites, is perpetually free from offence in thought, in word and in deed.

"He confers purity on his living family, on his ancestors, and on his descendants as far as the seventh person, and he alone deserves to possess this whole earth."

The Second Book of Manu treats of education and the priesthood. It condemns self-love as an unworthy motive, also the performance of sacrifices and the practice of penances and austerities for the sake of a reward. It enjoins upon priests to beg their food, first of their mothers, sisters, or mother's whole sisters, then of some other female who will not disgrace them. A priest who knows the Veda, and is able to pronounce to himself, both morning and evening, the syllable om attains the sanctity conferred by the Veda. The book condemns sensu

ality and declares no man thus contaminated ever able to procure felicity either from the Vedas, or from liberality, sacrifices, strict observances, or pious austerities. It declares that a student who humbly follows his teacher will attain knowledge, the means of salvation. Sensual indulgence is to be repented of by fasts, the performance of ablutions, and the reading of texts from the Vedas.

The Fourth Book treats on private morals, enjoining upon Brahmans the strict observance of truth as the primal rule, and condemning falsehood in the severest terms, declaring that sacrifice becomes vain by falsehood. It declares that in one's passage to the next world, no one, not even of his family or relatives, remains in his company, his virtue only adhering to him.

The

The Fifth Book relates to diet. It requires entire abstinence from animal flesh of any kind, because it involves the taking of animal life, which is totally prohibited. It also commands total abstinence from all intoxicating drink. It enjoins its devotees to subsistence on pure fruit and roots, and such grains as are eaten by hermits. Sacred learning, austere devotion, fire, holy aliment, earth, the wind, water, air, the sun, time, and prescribed acts of religion, are mentioned as purifiers of embodied spirits. Of all pure things purity in acquiring wealth. is pronounced the most excellent. learned are declared purified by forgiving injuries; those who are negligent by liberality; those with secret faults by pious meditation; those who best know the Veda by devout austerity. Bodies are declared cleansed by water; the mind is pronounced purified by truth; the vital spirit by theology and devotion; the understanding by clear knowledge. Women are allowed no sacrifice separate from their husbands, nor any religious rite, nor fasting; far only as a wife honors her lord, so far is she exalted in heaven." "A faithful wife, who wishes to attain in heaven the mission of her husband, must do nothing. unkind to him, be he living or dead." She is enjoined to emaciate her body by living

"as

voluntarily on pure flowers, roots and fruit; and when her lord is deceased she is not to pronounce the name of another man. She is enjoined to continue until death forgiving all injuries, performing harsh duties, avoiding all sensual pleasures, and cheerfully practicing the strictest rules of virtue, followed by those women who are devoted to their husbands.

The Sixth Book of the Laws of Manu relates to devotion. It appears that the Brahmans were accustomed to becoming ascetics, or entering religion, as the Roman Catholics would say. A Brahman, or twice-born man, who desires to become an ascetic, must relinquish his home and family and go to live in the forest. He must subsist on roots and fruit, and clothe himself in a bark garment or a skin. He must bathe in the morning and in the evening, and allow his hair to grow. He must spend his time. in reading the Vedas, with his thoughts intent on the Supreme Being. He must be a perpetual giver but no receiver of gifts; with tender affection for all animated bodies." He must perform various sacrifices with offerings of fruits and flowers. He must practice austerities by exposing himself to heat and cold, and "for the purpose of uniting his soul with the Divine Spirit he must study the Upanishads.”

"A Brahman, having shuffled off his body by these modes, which great sages practice, and becoming void of sorrow and fear, is exalted into the Divine essence."

"Let him not wish for death. Let him not wish for life. Let him expect his appointed time, as the hired servant expects his wages."

"Meditating on the Supreme Spirit, without any earthly desire, with no companion but his own soul, let him live in this world seeking the bliss of the next."

The anchorite is to beg his food, but only once a day. If it is refused him, he must not be sorrowful; and if he receives it, he must not be glad. He must meditate on the "subtle indivisible essence of the Supreme Being." He must be careful not to destroy the life of even the smallest insect.

He must make atonement for the death of those which he has unknowingly destroyed, by making six suppressions of his breath, repeating at the same time the triliteral syllable A U M. In this way he will finally become united with the Eternal Spirit, "and his good deeds will be inherited by those who love him, and his evil deeds by those who hate him.”

The Seventh Book relates to the duties of rulers. One of these duties is to reward the good and to punish the wicked. "The genius of punishment is a son of Brahma, and has a body of pure light." Punishment is considered an active ruler. It governs the human race, it dispenses laws, it preserves mankind, and it is the perfection. of justice. If it were not inflicted, all classes of mankind would become corrupt, all barriers would be cast away, and complete confusion would be the result. Kings must respect the Brahmans, must shun vices, must choose good counselors and brave soldiers. A king must be a father to his people. When going to war he must observe the rules of honorable warfare, must not use poisoned arrows, must not strike a fallen foe, nor one who begs for life, nor one unarmed, nor one who surrenders. He must not take too little revenue, and thus "cut up his own root; " nor too much, and thus "cut up the root of others." He must be severe when necessary, and mild when necessary.

The Eighth Book relates to civil and criminal law. The Raja is required to hold his court daily, aided by his Brahmans, and to decide causes respecting debts and loans, sales, wages, contracts, boundaries, slander, assaults, theft, robbery, and other crimes. The Raja, "understanding what is expedient or inexpedient, but considering only what is law or not law," is expected to investigate all disputes. He must protect unprotected women, restore property to its rightful owner, must not encourage litigation, and must decide in accordance with rules of law. The rules correspond almost exactly to our law of evidence. Witnesses are warned to tell the truth in every case by considering that,

though they may think that no one sees them, the gods clearly see them and likewise the spirits in their own breasts.

"The soul itself is its own witness, the soul itself is its own refuge; offend not thy conscious soul, the supreme internal witness of men."

"The fruit of every virtuous act which thou hast done, O good man, since thy birth, shall depart from thee to the dogs, if thou deviate from the truth."

"O friend to virtue, the Supreme Spirit, which is the same with thyself, resides in thy bosom perpetually, and is an all-knowing inspector of thy goodness or wicked

ness."

The law then describes the punishments which the gods would inflict upon false witnesses; but strangely permits false witness to be given for benevolent reasons, to save an innocent man from a tyrant. This is styled "the venial sin of benevolent falsehood." The book then describes weights and measures, also the rate of usury, which is set down at five per cent. Compound interest is forbidden. The law of deposits takes considerable space, as in all Asiatic lands, where investments are not easy. Much is said concerning the wages of servants, particularly such as are employed to watch cattle, and the responsibilities devolving upon them. The law of slander is carefully defined. Crimes of violence are likewise described in detail. If a man strikes a human or animal creature so as to cause pain, he shall himself be struck in the same manner. A man is permitted to chastise with a small stick his wife, his son or his servant, but not the head or any noble part of the body. But the Brahmans have the protection of special laws.

"Never shall the king flay a Brahman, though convicted of all possible crimes; let him banish the offender from his realm, but with all his property secure and his body unhurt."

"No greater crime is known on earth than flaying a Brahman; and the king, therefore, must not even form in his mind the idea of killing a priest."

The Ninth Book relates to women, to families, and to the law of castes. It says that women must be kept in a dependent condition.

"Their fathers protect them in childhood: their husbands protect them in youth; their sons protect them in age. A woman is never fit for independence."

It is said to be men's duty to watch and guard women, and not very flattering views are expressed regarding the female character.

"Women have no business with the text of the Veda; this is fully settled; therefore having no knowledge of expiatory texts, sinful women must be as foul as falsehood itself. This is a fixed law.”

It is said, however, that good women become like goddesses, and shall be joined to their husbands in heaven, and that a man is only perfect when he consists of three persons united-himself, his wife and his son. Manu likewise ascribes to ancient Brahmans a maxim almost literally like one of the Bible, namely, "The husband is even one person with his wife.” Manu says nothing about the burning of widows, but gives minute directions for the conduct of widows during their life, and also directions regarding the marriage of sons and daughters and their inheritance of property. The remainder of the Ninth Book further describes crimes and punishments.

The Tenth Book of Manu relates to mixed classes and times of distress; the Eleventh to penance and expiation. In the Eleventh Book is mentioned the strange rite consisting in drinking the fermented juice of the moon-plant, or acid asclepias, with religious ceremonies. This Hindoo sacrament began in the Vedic age, and the Sanhita of the Sama-Veda consists of hymns to be sung at the moon-plant sacrifices. This ceremony is yet occasionally practiced in India, and Dr. Haug has tasted this sacred beverage, which he says is bitter, unpleasant and intoxicating. Manu says that no one has a right to drink this sacred juice who does not properly provide for his own family. He encourages sacrifices by asserting that they

are highly meritorious and will expiate sin. Involuntary sins do not require as heavy a penance as those committed with knowledge. Crimes committed by Brahmans do not require as heavy a penance as those committed by others; but those committed. against Brahmans carry a much deeper guilt and require a much severer penance. The law declares:

"From his high birth alone a Brahman is an object of veneratlon, even to deities, and his declarations are decisive evidence."

"A Brahman, who has performed an expiation with his whole mind fixed on God, purifies his soul."

The Law of Manu strictly prohibits the drinking of intoxicating liquor, except in the Soma sacrifice, already alluded to, and it declares that a Brahman who tastes intoxicating liquor sinks to the low caste of a Sudra. If a Brahman who has tasted the Soma juice even smells the breath of a man who has been drinking ardent spirits, he must do penace by repeating the Gayatri, suppressing his breath, and eating clarified butter. Cows are objects of reverence next to the Brahmans, perhaps beeause the Aryan race were originally nomads and depended on this animal for food. He who kills a cow must perform severe penances, among which are the following:

"All day he must wait on a herd of cows and stand quaffing the dust raised by their hoofs; at night, having servilely attended them, he may sit near and guard them."

"Free from passion, he must stand while they stand, follow when they move, and lie down near them when they lie down."

"By this waiting on a herd for three months, he who has killed a cow atones for his guilt."

Such offenses as cutting down fruit-trees. or grasses, or killing insects, or injuring sentient creatures, require as a penance the repeating of a number of texts from the Vedas, the eating of clarified butter, or the holding of the breath. A low-born man who treats a Brahman with disrespect, or who even gets the better of him in an argument,

is required to fast all day and to prostrate himself before him. He who strikes a Brahman shall remain in hell a thousand years. The power of sincere devotion is nevertheless very great. Any one is freed from all guilt by reading the Vedas, open confession, repentance, reformation and alms giving. It is said that devotion is equal to the performance of all duties. Even the souls of worms, insects and vegetables reach heaven by the power of devotion. But the sanctifying influence of the Vedas is particularly great. He who is able to repeat all of the Rig-Veda would be free from guilt, even if he had killed the inhabitants of three worlds.

The last book of Manu relates to the doctrine of the metempsychosis, or transmigration of the soul and final beatitude. Here it is declared that every human action, word and thought bears its good or evil fruit.

From the heart come three sins of thought, four of the tongue, and three of the body, namely, covetous, disobedient and atheistic thoughts; scurrilous, false, frivolous and unkind words; and actions of theft, bodily injury and licentiousness. He who controls his thoughts, words and actions is called a triple commander. The three qualities of the soul are giving it a tendency to goodness, to passion and to darkness. The first leads to knowledge, the second to desire, the third to sensuality. To the first belong the study of the Vedas, devotion, purity, self-control and obedience. From the second proceed hypocritical actions, anxiety, disobedience and self-indulgence. The third produces avarice, atheism, indolence, and all acts for which a man is ashamed. Virtue is the object of the first quality, worldly success of the second, and pleasure of the third. The souls in which the first quality predominates rise after death to the condition of deities. Those controlled by the second quality pass into the bodies of other men. Those dominated by the third quality become animals and vegetables. Manu expounds this law of the soul's transmigration very minutely. For great sins any one is condemned to pass

many times into the bodies of dogs, insects, spiders, snakes or grasses. This change relates to the crime. One who steals grain One who steals grain shall be born a rat. One who steals meat shall become a vulture. One who indulges in forbidden pleasures of the senses shall have his senses rendered acute to endure intense pain.

The highest virtue is doing good because it is right goodness done from the love of God and based on the knowledge of the Vedas. A religious act performed simply with the expectation of reward in the next world, will only give one a place in the lowest heaven. But one doing good deeds without the hope of reward, "perceiving the supreme soul in all beings, and all beings in the supreme soul, fixing his mind on God approaches the Divine Nature."

"Let every Brahman, with fixed attention, consider all nature as existing in the Divine Spirit; all worlds as seated in him; he alone as the whole assemblage of gods; and he the author of all human actions."

"Let him consider the supreme omnipresent intelligence as the sovereign lord of the universe, by whom alone it exists, an incomprehensible spirit; pervading all beings in five elemental forms, and causing them to pass through birth, growth and decay, and so to solve like the wheels of a car."

"Thus the man who perceives in his own soul the supreme soul present in all creatures, acquires equanimity toward them all, and shall be absolved at last in the highest essence, even that of the Almighty himself." We now come to the three systems of Hindoo philosophy-Sánkhya, Vedanta and Nyaya. Duncker says that the Hindoo system of philosophy arose in the sixth or seventh century before Christ. As the Buddhist religion implies the existence of the Sánkhya philosophy, this philosophy must have existed prior to Buddhism. Kapila and his two principles are likewise mentioned in the Laws of Manu and in the later Upanishads. This would bring it to the Brahmana period, according to Max Müller, from B. C. 800 or B. C. 600, and perhaps earlier. Cole

brooke says that Kapila is mentioned in the Veda. Kapila was even regarded as an incarnation of Vishnu, or of Agni. Lassen says that the Vedanta philosophy is mentioned in the Laws of Manu. This philosophy is based on the Upanishads, and would appear to be later than that of Kapila, as it criticises his philosophy. Nevertheless Duncker regards it as the oldest system, and as already commencing in the Upanishads of the Vedas.

The Sánkhya philosophy of Kapila is contained in numerous works, particularly in the Sánkhya-Káriká by Iswara-Krishna, which consists of eighty-two memorial verses with a commentary. The Vedanta philosophy is contained in the Sutras, the Upanishads, and especially in the BrahmaSutra ascribed to Nyaya. The Nyaya philosophy is found in the Sutras of Gautama and Canade.

It is not known when the three systems of Hindoo philosophy arose, or who were their founders. They agree in some points, but differ in others. They all three agree in having for their object deliverance from the evils of time, change, sorrow, into an everlasting rest and peace. Their aim is practical, not speculative. All agree in regarding existence as an evil, meaning by existence a life in time and space. All are idealistic, in which the world of matter and time is a delusion and a snare, and in which ideas are considered the only substance. All agree in accepting the doctrine of the metempsychosis, or transmigration of the soul, the end of which transmigration only brings final rest and deliverance. All agree that the means of this deliverance is to be found in knowledge, in a perfect knowledge in reality and not in appearance. All three systems are held by Brahmans who regard themselves as orthodox, who esteem the Vedas above all other books, who pay complete respect to the Brahmanism of the day, who perform the daily ceremonies and observe the usual rules of caste. The three systems of philosophy supplement the religious worship, but are not designed to destroy it. The Vedantists maintain that