2. Only the Carefully-informed should Attempt Exposition. -It is very evident that those who are not well informed on any subject are not well prepared to instruct others on such a subject. Exposition in such cases would be apt to lack point, and could not be regarded as authoritative.

4. Argument is the statement of reasons for or against a proposition. Argument is made with the view of influencing the belief and conduct of others. It is the most important of all composition, for the reason that there is scarcely an individual who does not find occasion to use argument, either oral or written, for the purpose of influencing the belief and conduct of his associates.

Argument aims to persuade; there are therefore two conditions to be influenced, belief and feeling.

The first object of argument is to convince or control the belief of the person or persons addressed. To do this, arguments must be produced, consequences must be shown, and reasons must be given.

The second object of argument is to move the feelings. Facts may be produced and reasons be given, and yet in such a way that the feelings are not influenced. In addition, therefore, to convincing the person addressed, the facts and arguments must be presented in such a way as to arouse the feelings. Generally, the appeal to the feelings is the more powerful of the two in the matter of controlling conduct.

SUGGESTIONS.

The following are some of the most important suggestions on argumentation:

1. A Definite Method should be Adopted.—In dealing with some subjects, especially when the object is merely to

influence belief, a mere effort to convince is sufficient. At other times it may be more important to appeal to the feelings, while at still others it may be best to combine both forms of argument. In any case there should be a definite plan of attaining the object sought.

2. The Character of the Persons to be Addressed should be Understood.-Whether the argument be oral, as in the case of debates, speeches, addresses, lectures, and sermons, or whether it be written, the persons addressed should be understood, as well as their general habits, their methods of thought, their daily surroundings, and everything else that may be of influence in controlling their thought and action. The most successful writers and speakers are not those who best understand their subjects, but those who best understand the people whom they address. The secret of success lies in addressing people as they are, not as they are supposed to be or as they ought to be.

3. Argument may be Illustrated.-Facts may be stated. in such a way as to convince, but appropriate illustration adds force, especially where the feelings are to be reached. Gough, in his temperance addresses, always relied much on his inexhaustible fund of anecdote and illustration. So also of other evils: more has been done to correct them by vivid illustrations than by direct appeals.

4. The Validity of Argument depends upon Unquestioned Statements.-A statement that may be doubted should not be employed in argument, for the reason that if it does not possess the element of certainty, it weakens rather than strengthens an argument, and shows the weakness of the principle to be established.

5. State the Position Clearly at the Outset.-Much debate is valueless because of the fact that the disputants sometimes do not make clear at the outset what they propose to establish. It is no uncommon thing for men to argue for hours, and finally discover that the difference between their positions at the outstart was not of sufficient importance to merit an argument.

6. State the Question Fairly.-It is imperative that a fair debater state not only his side of the question, but also that of his opponent. It is also important that the indisputable points made by an opponent be conceded. Nothing brings conviction to the minds of hearers so surely as the impression that when one offers argument he does so fairly, conscientiously, and with full concession to unquestioned facts on the other side.

7. Possible Objections should be Anticipated.-This is especially true where, in a debate, each debater is limited to a single speech. In general, it is best to answer these objections before entering on the main argument. The hearer is thus better prepared to

listen to the direct argument.

8. Complete each Argument Separately.-If each argument be made conclusive in itself, the general argument will not only be clearer, but it will also make a deeper impression, and the hearer will be enabled the more readily to reach a conclusion.

9. In citing Authorities, cite only those that are Accessible. This is but fair to your opponent, and it avoids the possibility of one's being accused of unfairness or pedantry.

10. Analyze the Argument of your Opponent.-Nothing is so effective as the dissection and analysis of opposing

arguments when one is able to show that they either have no strength, do not bear on the question, are a mere repetition, or are in themselves self-contradictory.

11. Avoid Weak Arguments.-This is always best, unless you have a weak cause to defend, and even here it is best to use the strongest arguments possible. In addition to this, it is not best to use too many arguments, for one's cause may be really weakened by such an overabundance of argument as to tire those who are to pronounce judgment. Similarly, over-strong and voluminous arguments against a weak cause are unnecessary. It does not need the charge of a battery to demolish a

mouse.

12. Arguments should be Put in the Form of Climax.— The strongest and most forcible arguments should be retained for the last. Where it is deemed necessary to gain the attention of the hearers, as where the attention has been captured by another speaker, it is well to begin with a few forcible arguments. In any case, the one who offers his arguments should have a clear idea in his mind of what he proposes to say; and in this respect nothing can be more helpful to him than a carefully-prepared outline.

13. A Summary should Follow at the Close of the Arguments.-This will put the whole argument in a concise form, enable the hearers to associate closely the strong points, and round out the whole discussion in such a way as to present the importance of the subject in the most impressive and most convincing manner.

CHAPTER III.

PROSE COMPOSITION.

Prose is the term applied to ordinary, natural, straightforward composition. It includes all writing not expressed in verse.

Divisions. The chief divisions of prose composition are Letters, News, Editorials, Reviews, Essays, Treatises, Travels, History, Fiction, and Discourses.

1. LETTERS.

Note.-The subject of Letters and Letter-writing has been fully discussed on pp. 55 to 92, inclusive, and therefore is omitted here.

2. NEWS.

Next to letters, the writing of news items is both the most common and the most frequent kind of composition.

The literary character of news items is not generally of a high order, chiefly because a large part of the work has to be done in great haste. The writers have but little time to make an effort at elegant style, nor would such a style be in good taste.

The chief features aimed at by the writers of news are accuracy, condensation, and clearness.