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6. By Transposition of Parts of the Sentence.-This transposition may take place in either prose or poetry, but it occurs most frequently in poetry.

Thus, "Honor and shame rise from no condition" is transposed to read,

"Honor and shame from no condition rise."

So also, "They who build beneath the stars, build too low," is transposed to read,

"Too low they build who build beneath the stars."

7. By Abridging Clauses.-The clauses to be abridged are usually adjective or adverbial in character, though substantive clauses also may be abridged. Thus,

=

The gates which are made of iron Iron gates.
When the bell rang = The bell having rung.

I believe that he is an honest man honest man.

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I believe him to be an

8. By Substituting Phrases for Words.-These phrases are equivalent to adjectives, adverbs, and nouns in the possessive

case.

9. By Expanding Phrases to Clauses.-These phrases may be infinitive, participial, or absolute. Thus,

1. "We listened to the speech to learn the facts"="We listened to the speech that we might learn the facts."

2. "Having finished my work, I returned home” = “When I had finished my work I returned home."

3. "The army having been defeated, the soldiers at once sought for shelter" "After the army had been defeated the soldiers at once sought for shelter."

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CHAPTER VI.

SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF STYLE.

THE special properties of Style may be discussed under the heads of Sublimity, Beauty, Wit, and Humor.

1. SUBLIMITY.

It is not the province of rhetoric to show how we acquire the idea of sublimity. That belongs rather to psychology. We cannot define the term, but we may name some of the qualities which produce the feeling of sublimity. Among these are the following:

1. Vastness. We have examples of this in the lofty mountains, steep precipices, the broad prairies, the boundless ocean, the starry firmament, etc.

This vastness affects us much more forcibly when applied to perpendicular than to horizontal distance. Thus, a steep or perpendicular cliff of several hundred feet is more effective in producing the feeling of sublimity than many miles of level. plains. Great depths also are more productive of sublimity than are great heights, as is readily demonstrated by first looking at a high building or tower, and then looking down from its top.

2. Power.-Power is an element of the sublime. Familiar examples of powerful objects that produce a feeling of sublimity are the war-horse, the locomotive with its train, great conflagrations, earthquakes, lightning, volcanoes, cataracts, the rushing of floods and torrents, hurricanes, cyclones, and tornadoes.

A stream flowing gently between its banks is an object of beauty, but when it breaks over its barriers and rushes on as a torrent or is broken into numerous cataracts, it becomes an object of sublimity. "The sight of a small fire,” says Longinus, "produces no emotion; but we are struck with the boiling furnace of Etna pouring out whole rivers of liquid flame." So also the engagement of armies and fleets in battle, being the highest exhibition of human might, is one of the most forcible examples of sublime action. The following description of the war-horse by Job is a fine example of sublimity:

"Hast thou given the horse strength? Hast thou clothed his neck with thunder? Canst thou make him afraid as a grasshopper? The glory of his nostrils is terrible. He paweth in the valley, and rejoiceth in his strength; he goeth on to meet the armed men. He mocketh at fear, and is not affrighted; neither turneth he back for the sword. The quiver rattleth against him, the glittering spear and the shield. He swalloweth the ground with fierceness and rage; neither believeth he that it is the sound of the trumpet. He saith among the trumpets, Ha, ha! and he smelleth the battle afar off!"

3. Awfulness.-Awfulness also produces feelings of sublimity. Familiar examples here are the silence and darkness of night, and solitude especially in a dense forest.

Night scenes are usually most sublime. Thus, a storm, the firmament, the roar of the ocean, the tolling of a bell, an alarm of fire, all are most sublime at night. Milton writes—

"How oft amidst

Thick clouds and dark, does Heaven's all-ruling Sire

Choose to reside, his glory unobscured,

And with the majesty of darkness round

Circles his throne!"

4. Sound.-Loudness of sound is another element of sublimity. Not all sounds, however, have this effect. Shrill sounds have the power of frightening and terrifying, but deep sounds are sublime.

By some writers the sounds characterized by sublimity are given mainly as follows:

1. Sounds associated with the idea of danger; as the booming of cannon, the howling of a storm, the roar of a tornado, the rumbling of an earthquake.

2. Sounds associated with great power actively exerted; as the dash of waves, the crackling of a conflagration, the roar of a tempest or a torrent.

3. Sounds associated with ideas of majesty or solemnity; as the sound of trumpets and other warlike instruments, the tolling of a bell, or the notes of a grand organ.

4. Sounds produced by strong or ferocious animals; as the howling of wolves or the roaring of lions.

5. Sounds of the human voice that indicate the more serious emotions; as sorrow, despair, terror, etc.

In general, it will be noticed that sublimity of sound is not inherent in the sound itself, but arises from the association of ideas in connection with objects or occasions producing the sound. This is shown by the fact that when the sound and the idea are not associated, the feeling of sublimity is not aroused. A familiar instance is the rumbling of a carriage over a bridge. In such case, if the noise be mistaken for that of thunder it arouses a feeling of sublimity, but the moment the mistake is discovered this feeling ceases. On the contrary, if the rolling of thunder be mistaken for the rumbling of a carriage or the passing of a train of cars, no feeling is aroused. So also when the rumbling of a train is mistaken for that of an earthquake, or when the lowing of a cow is mistaken for the roar of some wild animal. The sound may be sublime until its true origin is discovered, but then the feeling ceases.

5. Moral Greatness.-Moral greatness also awakens sublimity. By some this has been called the moral sub

lime. Thus, most heroic actions are productive of sublimity, filling the mind with admiration. History gives us many examples.

The following are given as some of the most fruitful sources of the moral sublime:

1. Firmness in the Cause of Truth and Justice.-Among the .most familiar examples are—

a. Brutus sentencing his sons to death for having conspired against their country.

b. Socrates preferring to die by the poisonous hemlock, rather than accept the means of escape in his power, because such acceptance might have been construed into an admission of guilt on his part.

c. Manlius ordering his son to the stake for engaging with an enemy contrary to Manlius's command.

2. Generous Self-sacrifice in behalf of Another.-Occasional examples of this are found in the heroic conduct of railway engineers who risk their own lives to save those of their passengers; so also of commanders of ships and steamers who provide for the safety of passengers at the peril of their own lives. Other forcible illustrations are found in the story of Damon and Pythias and in the career of Coriolanus, who, after having been besought in vain by the leading men of Rome, yielded to his mother's tears and prayers, though aware that the consequences would be fatal to himself, and consented to withdraw his army with the words: "Mother, thou hast saved Rome, but lost thy son."

3. Self-possession and Fearlessness in Circumstances of Danger.— Such was the incident in the career of Cæsar when, in rowing across a branch of the sea, he was overtaken by a tempest of such violence that the pilot declared himself unable to proceed, and was met with the sublime reply of Cæsar: "What do you fear? You carry Cæsar!"

4. Exalted Patriotism.-Wolfe's death-scene on the Plains of Abraham exhibits the height of the moral sublime.

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