of France in general, was abolished, and the buildings partially demolished, the splendor of this place was destroyed; but under the consulate, when wealth again dared to display itself openly, Longchamp recovered its ancient brilliancy, and again offered the Parisian ladies an opportunity of exhibiting their charms. Tallien and Recamier were then the stars in this firmament of fashion and beauty. Under the imperial government, the splendor of Longchamp was somewhat diminished, owing partly to Napoleon's contempt for frivolous exhibitions, partly to the continued wars, which withdrew great numbers of rich young men from the capital. After the restoration, the promenade of Longchamp was almost wholly neglected. But more recently, it has again recovered some of its former splendor.

LONGEVITY. The extreme limit of human life, and the means of attaining it, have been a subject of general interest, both in ancient and modern times, and the physiologist and political economist are alike attracted by the inquiry. It is for the student of biblical antiquities to decide in what sense we are to understand the word year in the scriptural accounts of the antediluvians; whether it signifies a revolution of the sun or of the moon, or whether their extreme longevity is only the creation of tradition. In the sense which we now give to the word year, the accounts would make the constitution of men at the period referred to, very different from what it is at present, or has been, at any period from which observations on the duration of human life have been transmitted to us. The results of all these observations, in regard to the length of life in given circumstances, do not essentially differ. Pliny affords some valuable statistical information, if accurate, regarding the period at which he lived, obtained from an official, and, apparently, authentic source, the census, directed by the emperor Vespasian, in the year 76 of the Christian era. From this we learn that, at the time of the computation, there were, in the part of Italy comprised between the Apennines and the Po, 124 individuals aged 100 years and upwards, viz. 54 of 100 years, 57 of 110, 2 of 125, 4 of 130, 4 of 135 to 137, and 3 of 140. At Parma, a man was living aged 120, and 2 aged 130; at Faenza, a female aged 132; and at a small town near Placentia, called Velleiacium, lived 6 persons aged 110 years each, and 4 of 120. These estimates, however, do not accord with those of Ulpian, who seems to have taken especial care to be

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come acquainted with the facts of the case. His researches prove that the expectation of life in Rome, at that time, was much less than it now is in London, or in any of our cities. Hufeland, indeed, in his Macrobiotics, asserts that the tables of Ulpian agree perfectly with those afforded by the great cities of Europe, and that they exhibit the probabilities of life in ancient Rome to have been the same as those of modern London. But doctor F. Bisset Hawkins, in his Elements of Medical Statistics (London, 1829), says that the tables, kept by the censors for 1000 years, and constituting registers of population, sex, age, disease, &c., according to Ulpian (who was a lawyer, and a minister of Alexander Severus), refer only to free citizens, and that, to draw a just comparison between Rome and London, it would be necessary to take, among the inhabitants of the latter city, only those who were similarly circumstanced, viz. those whose condition is easy; in which case, the balance would be greatly in favor of modern times. Mr. Finlayson has ascertained, from very extensive observation on the decrement of life prevailing among the nominees of the Tontines, and other life annuities, granted by the authority of parliament, during the last 40 years, that the expectation of life is above 50 years for persons thus situated, which affords the easy classes of England a superiority of 20 years above even the easy classes among the Romans. The mean term of life among the easy classes of Paris is, at present, 42 years, which gives them an advantage of 12 years above the Romans. In the third century of the Christian era, the expectation of life in Rome was as follows: From birth to 20, there was a probability of 30 years; from 20 to 25, of 28 years; from 25 to 30, 25 years; from 30 to 35, 22 years; from 35 to 40, 20 years; from 40 to 45, 18 years; from 45 to 50, 13 years; from 50 to 55, 9 years; from 55 to 60, 7 years; from 60 to 65, 5 years. Farther than this the computation did not extend. The census taken from time to time in England affords us information of an unquestionable character. The first actual enumeration of the inhabitants was made in 1801, and gave an annual mortality of 1 in 44.8. The third and last census was made in 1821, and showed a mortality of 1 to 58. (See Abstract of the Answers and Returns made pursuant to an 1ct passed in the Year of George IV, &c., by Rickman.) The mortality then had decreased considerably within 20 years. In France, the annual deaths were, in 1781, 1 in 29; in 1802,

in 30; in 1823, 1 in 40. In the Pays de Vaud, the mortality is 1 to 49; in Sweden and Holland, 1 to 48; in Russia, 1 to 41; in Austria, 1 to 38. Wherever records have been kept, we find that mortality has decreased with civilization. Perhaps a few more persons reach extreme old age among nations in a state of little cultivation; but it is certain that more children die, and the chance of life, in general, is much less. In Geneva, records of mortality have been kept since 1590, which show that a child born there has, at present, five times greater expectation of life than one born three centuries ago. A like improvement has taken place in the salubrity of large towns. The annual mortality of London, in 1700, was 1 in 25; in 1751, 1 in 21; in 1801, and the 4 years preceding, 1 in 35; in 1811, 1 in 38; and in 1821, 1 in 40; the value of life having thus doubled, in London, within the last 80 years. In Paris, about the middle of the last century, the mortality was 1 in 25; at present, it is about 1 in 32; and it has

Ages.

been calculated that, in the fourteenth century, it was one in 16 or 17. The annual mortality in Berlin has decreased during the last 50 or 60 years, from 1 in 28 to 1 in 34. The mortality in Manchester was, about the middle of the last century, 1 in 25; in 1770, 1 in 28: 40 years afterwards, in 1811, the annual deaths were diminished to 1 in 44; and, in 1821, they seem to have been still fewer. Iu the middle of the last century, the mortality of Vienna was 1 in 20; it has not, however, improved in the same proportion as some of the other European cities. According to recent calculation, it is, even now, 1 in 224, or about twice the proportion of Philadelphia, Manchester or Glasgow. Many years ago, Mr. Finlayson drew up the following table, to exhibit the difference in the value of life, at two periods of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Had it been calculated for 1830, the results would have been st!! more remarkable.

So that the Increase of Vitality is in the inverse Ratio of 100 to

1789.

La

* The Literary Gazette gives, in a tabular form, the results of a work on this subject, from the pen of Mr. Thackrah, an eminent surgeon, of Leeds.Out-of-door occupations. Butchers are subject to few ailments, and these the result of plethora. Though more free from diseases than other trades, they, however, do not enjoy greater longevity: on the contrary, Mr. Thackrah thinks their lives shorter than those of other men who spend much time in the open air. Cattle and horse-dealers are generally healthy, except when their habits are intemperate. Fish-mongers, though much exposed to the weather, are hardy, temperate, healthy and long-lived'; cart-drivers, if sufficiently fed, and temperate, the same. borers in husbandry, &c., suffer from a deficiency of nourishinent. Brickmakers, with full muscular exercise in the open air, though exposed to vicissitudes of cold and wet, avoid rheumatism and inflammatory diseases, and attain good old age. Paviers are subject to complaints in the loins, increasing with age, but they live long. Chaisedrivers, postilions, coachmen, guards, &c., from the position of the two former on the saddle, irregular living, &c., and from the want of muscular exercise, in the two latter, are subject to gastric disorders, and, finally, to apoplexy and palsy, which shorten their lives. Carpenters, coopers, wheelwrights, &c., are healthy and long-lived. Smiths are often intemperate, and die comparatively young. Rope-makers and gardeners suffer from their stooping postures.-In-door occupations. Tailors, notwithstanding their confined atmosphere and bad posture, are not liable to acute diseases, but give way to stomach complaints and consumption. The prejudicial influence of their employment is more insidicus than urgent: it undermines rather than destroys life. Staymakers have their health impaired, but live to a good age. Milliners, dress-makers and straw

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pear to be more injurious to long life than many others. Many of the first literati, most distinguished for application throughout life, have attained old age, both in modern and ancient times. In the ancient authors, numerous instances of this kind are recorded, many of which may be found collected in the work of Hufeland, already alluded to.-We will add a few instances of extraordinary longevity. The Englishman Parr, who was born in 1483, married when at the age of 120, retained his vigor till 140, and died at the age of 152, from plethora. Harvey, the distinguished discoverer of the circulation of the blood, who dissected him, found no decay of any organ. (Philosophical Transactions, vol. iii, 1698.) Henry Jenkins, who died in Yorkshire, in 1670, is, perhaps, the greatest authentic instance of longevity. He lived 169 years. Margaret Forster, a native of Cumberland, England, died in 1771, aged 136; and James Lawrence, a Scotchman, lived 140 years. A Dane, named Drakenberg, died in 1772, in his 147th year; and John Effingham, or Essingham, died in Cornwall, in 1757, aged 144. In 1792, a soldier, named

bonnet-makers are unhealthy and short-lived. Spinners, cloth-dressers, weavers, &c., are more or less healthy, according as they have more or less exercise and air. Those exposed to inhale imperceptible particles of dressings, &c., such as frizers, suffer from disease, and are soonest cut off. Shoemakers are placed in a bad posture. Digestion and circulation are so much impaired, that the countenance marks a shoemaker almost as well as a tailor. We suppose that, from the reduction of perspiration, and other evacuations, in this and similar employments, the blood is impure, and, consequently, the complexion darkened. The secretion of bile is generally unhealthy, and bowel complaints are frequent. In the few shoemakers who live to old age, there is often a remarkable hollow at the base of the breast-bone, occasioned by the pressure of the last. Curriers and leather-dressers are very healthy, and live to old age. Saddlers lean much forward, and suffer, accordingly, from headache and indigestion. Printers (our worthy cooperators) are kept in a confined atmosphere, and generally want exercise. Pressmen, however, have good and varied labor. The constant application of the eyes to minute objects gradually enfeebles these organs. The standing posture, long maintained here, as well as in other occupations, tends to injure the digestive organs. Some printers complain of disorder of the stomach and head, and few appear to enjoy full health. Consumption is frequent. We can scarcely find or hear of any compositor above the age of 50. In many towns, printers are intem. perate. Bookbinders, a healthy employment. Carvers and gilders look pale and weakly, but their lives are not abbreviated in a marked degree. Clock-makers are generally healthy and fong-lived; watch-makers, the reverse. House servants, in large, smoky towns, are unhealthy Colliers and well-sinkers,-a class by themselves

Mittelstedt, died in Prussia, at the age of 112. Joseph Surrington, a Norwegian, died at Bergen, in 1797, aged 160 years. The St. Petersburg papers announced, in 1830, the death of a man 150 years old, at Moscow; and, in 1831, the death of a man in Russia, 165 years old, was reported. On May 7, 1830, died a man named John Ripkey, at the age of 108, in London. His sight remained good till the last. In 1830, a poor man, near lake Thrasimene, died 123 years old. He preserved his faculties to the last. In 1825, pope Leo XII gave him a pension. The late return of the population of the city of New York, according to the census of 1830, makes the number of those who live beyond the allotted three-score and ten, in the proportion of about 13 per cent. of the whole number. Although the number of white males exceeds that of females 1861, yet, of those who are upwards of 70, 8009, the excess is in favor of the females, there being 4175 of the latter, and but 3834 of the former. Of the 17 white persons above a hundred, 15, on the contrary, are males; and of the 45 black persons, a hundred and upwards, only 11 are males. The proportion of centenarians among the

-seldom reach the age of 50.-Employments producing dust, odor, or gaseous exhalations. These are not injurious, if they arise from animal substances, or from the vapor of wine or spirits. Tobacco manufacturers do not appear to suffer from the floating poison in their atmosphere. Snuff making is more pernicious. Men in oil-mills are generally healthy. Brush-makers live to a great age. Grooms and hostlers inspire ammoniacal gas, and are robust, healthy, and long-lived. Glue and size boilers, exposed to the most noxious stench, are fresh-looking and robust. Tallow-chandlers, also exposed to offensive animal odor, attain considerable age. Tanners are remarkably strong, and exempt from consumption. Corn-millers, breathing an atmosphere loaded with flour, are pale and sickly, and very rarely attain old age. Malsters cannot live long, and must leave the trade in middle life. Tea-men suffer from the dust, especially of green teas; but this injury is not permanent. Coffee-roasters become asthmatic, and subject to headache and indigestion. Paper-makers, when aged, cannot endure the effect of the dust from cutting the rags. The author suggests the use of machinery in this process. In the wet and wear and tear of the mills, they are not seriously affected, but live long. Masons are short-lived, dying generally before 40. They inhale particles of sand and dust, lift heavy weights, and are too often intemperate. Miners die prematurely. Machine-makers seem to suffer only from the dust they inhale, and the consequent bronchial irritation. The (iron) filers are alnost all unhealthy men, and remarkably shortlived Founders (in brass) suffer from the inhalation of the volatilized metal. In the founding of yellow brass, in particular, the evolution of oxide of zinc is very great. They seldom reach 40 vears Copper-smiths are considerably affected

blacks is much larger than among the whites, making all proper allowances for their exaggeration and ignorance.-Belsham's Chronology informs us that 21 persons, who had attained the age of 130 and upwards, died between the years 1760 and 1829: of these, one was aged 166. In the same period, 39 had attained the age of 120, and not 130. The number who attained the age of 110, and not 120, was 36 in the same space. And those who died after the age of 100, and before 110, were 54 within the period. Of the whole number recorded, 94 were natives of England, 23 of Ireland, and 12 of Russia. Doubtless many more have died after the age of 100, without having had their names recorded. The northern climates afford more instances of longevity than the southern; and, although far the greater part of those who have attained extreme old age have been distinguished for sobriety, yet some of them do not appear to have been in the habit of restraining their appetites. In China, where old

age is much respected, people receive presents from government, when they have attained a great

age.

by the fine scales which rise from the imperfectly volatilized metal, and by the fumes of the spelter. or solder of brass. The men are generally unhealthy, suffering from disorders similar to those of the brass-founders. Tin-plate-workers are subjected to fumes from muriate of ammonia, and sulphureous exhalations from the coke which they burn. These exhalations, however, appear to be annoying, rather than injurious, as the men are tolerably healthy, and live to a considerable age. Tinners, also, are subject only to temporary inconvenience from the fumes of the soldering. Plumbers are exposed to the volatilized oxide of lead, which rises during the process of casting They are sickly in appearance, and short-lived. House-painters are unhealthy, and do not gen erally attain full age. Chemists and druggists, in laboratories, are sickly and consumptive. Potters, affected through the pores of the skin, become paralytic, and are remarkably subject to constipation. Hatters, grocers, bakers and chimney sweepers (a droll association) also suffer through the skin; but, although the irritation occasions diseases, they are not, except in the last class, fatal. Dyers are healthy and long-lived. Brewers are, as a body, far from healthy. Under a robust and often florid appearance, they couceal chronic diseases of the abdomen, particularly a congested state of the venous system. When these men are accidentally hurt or wounded, they are more liable than other individuals to severe and dangerous effects. Cooks and confectioners are subjected to considerable heat. Our common cooks are more unhealthy than house-maids. Their digestive organs are frequently disordered: they are subject to headache, and their tempers rendered irritable. Glass-workers are healthy. Glass-blowers often die suddenly.

LONGHI, Joseph, engraver, born 1768, in the States of the Church, went, during the political disturbances in Italy (1797), to Milan, where he distinguished himself, and surpassed, in drawing, the famous Morghen. No living engraver is able to represent flesh with such truth. He is master of every species of engraving, but subjects technical science to the true object of the art. In the style which combines etching with the application of the burin, he surpasses the most distinguished of his predecessors. In this department, are his Philosopher, from Rembrandt, and Dandolo, from Mettrini. His Magdalen, after Correggio, represents, with an almost indescribable exactness, the softness and transparency of tint admired in the original. His Galatea floating in a shell, from a painting by Albano, is equally excellent. Raphael's Vision of Ezekiel he has also engraved in a masterly manner. His original pieces, as, for instance, Pan pursuing Syrinx, from the first book of Ovid's Metamorphoses (finished in 1814) have also been much admired. His Raphael's Marriage of the Holy Virgin is worthy of the original, and is one of the finest engravings of our times. Some fragments, which have been published, of his History of the Art of Engraving, have also given him a reputation as a writer on this subject. Eugene Beauharnais, when viccroy of Italy, appointed Longhi professor at the academy of art in Milan, where he has formed several excellent scholars; he also received from that prince the order of the iron crown.

LONGIMETRY; the measuring of lengths or distances, both accessible and inaccessible. Accessible distances are measured by the application of some measure a certain number of times, as a foot, chain, &c.

And inaccessible distances are mea ured by taking angles, &c., by means of proper instruments, as the circumferentor, quadrant, theodolite, &c. This embraces a great number of cases, according to the situation of the object and observer.

LONGINUS, Cassius; a Platonic philosopher and celebrated rhetorician of the middle of the third century, A. D. According to some accounts, he was born at Emesa, in Syria; according to Ruhnken, Athens was his birth-place. Greek literature was the principal subject of his studies. At Alexandria, Athens, etc., he attended the lectures of the most distinguished scholars. He studied the Stoic and Peripatetic systems of philosophy, but subsequently became an ardent adherent of the Platonic, and annually cele7

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brated the birth-day of its founder, by a banquet. His principal attention was directed, however, to the study of grammar, criticism, eloquence and antiquities. At the invitation of queen Zenobia, he went to Palmyra to instruct her in Greek learning and to educate her children. He was likewise employed by her in the administration of the state, by which means he was involved in the fate of this queen. For when Zenobia was taken prisoner by the emperor Aurelian, and could save her life only by betraying her counsellors, Longinus, as the chief of them, was seized and beheaded, A. D. 275. He suffered death with all the firmness of a philosopher. Of his works, among which were some philosophical ones, none is extant, except the treatise On the Sublime, which goes under his name, and this is in a state of mutilation. It illustrates, with great acuteness and taste, the nature of the sublime in thought and style, by rules and examples. The best editions are those of Pearce (1724), of Toup and Ruhnken (Oxford, 1778). Benj. Weiske's edition appeared at Leipsic, 1809. There is an English translation of it by Wm. Smith. Longinus is usually called Dionysius, but this has arisen from the negligence of editors. The manuscript copy of the treatise On the Sublime, in Paris, and one in the Vatican, bear the inscription in Greek, By Dionysius or Longinus, which appeared in the first printed copies as Dionysius Longinus. The Florence manuscript bears the inscription Anonymous. Some critics have ascribed the work to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, others to another Longinus, while others confess that the author is uncertain.

LONG ISLAND, or NASSAU ISLAND; an island belonging to the state of New York, extending 120 miles in length, and varying from 10 to 20 miles in breadth. On the west, it is divided from Staten Island by the Narrows, and from Manhattan Island by East river. On the north, East river and Long Island sound sepa rate it from the main land. Its eastern extremity is Montauk point. On the south, it is washed by the ocean. Lon. 71° 47′ to 73° 57′ W.; lat. 40° 34' to 41° 10 N. Like other insular positions, its climate is more mild than that of the adjacent continent. The island is divided into three counties-King's, Queen's and Suffolk. Sag Harbor is the principal port. The south side of the island is flat land, of a light, sandy soil, bordered, on the sea coast, with large tracts of salt meadow. The soil, however, is wel