dinary in the present day, that a princess so contemplative and pious as Margaret of Valois, should be author of a book of tales as free in their tendency as those of Boccaccio. Such is Heptameron, ou sept Journées de la Reyne de Navarre, which was written during the gayety of youth, but not printed until after her death. She died in 1549, leaving one child, Joan d'Albret, afterwards mother of Henry IV. In 1547, a collection of her poems and other pieces was printed, under the title of Marguerites de la Marguerite des Princesses.

MARGARET, called Madame de Parma, duchess of Parma, the natural daughter of Charles V and Margaret of Gest, was born 1522, and married first to Alexander of Medici, and afterwards to Octavio Farnese, duke of Parma and Piacenza. Philip II, of Spain, appointed her to the government of the Netherlands, in 1559, where she acted, under the advice of Granvella (q. v.), with considerable prudence, and, perhaps, might have restored quiet, had not the king sent the duke of Alva to aid in suppressing the disaffection. Alva brought such powers, that nothing but the title of sovereign was left to Margaret, who returned, indignantly, to Italy, to her husband, and died at Ortona in 1586. Her son was the famous Alexander Farnese, duke of Parma.

MARGARET OF FRANCE, queen of Navarre, wife of Henry IV, daughter of Henry II, was born in 1552, and was one of the greatest beauties of her age. Her talents and accomplishments corresponded to the charms of her person. She was married to Henry, then prince of Béarn, in 1572; but the duke of Guise was known to be the object of her affections, and, notwithstanding her amiable qualities and brilliant beauty, she never possessed the heart of her husband. (See Henry IV.) The gallantries of Henry, which he never pretended to conceal from his wife, could not excuse nor authorize, but doubtless contributed to increase, her own irregularities. On the escape of Henry from Paris, she demanded permission of Henry III to follow him, but was not, for a long time, allowed to depart. After living several years with the king of Navarre, she returned to Paris, on account of some disgust at the restraints placed on the exercise of the Catholic religion, and while there was guilty of the greatest licentiousness.

Rejected at once from the court of Navarre and that of Paris, she maintained herself in the Agenois, in open defiance of her husband and brother. On the acces

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sion of the former to the throne of France he proposed to dissolve their marriage, to which she consented, on condition of receiving a suitable pension, and having her debts paid. In 1605, Margaret returned to Paris, where she lived in great splendor, retaining her beauty, wit, and habits of dissipation, and died in 1615, at the age of 63. The house of Margaret was frequented by the wits of the day, and she knew how to unite excessive indulgence in pleasure with attention to study Some very agreeable poems by her are extant, and her Mémoires (1661 and 1713) are extremely curious.

MARGATE; a watering place in the isle of Thanet, Kent, England, 72 miles E. of London, with which it has frequent communication by steam vessels. Population, 7843. It has several pleasant promenades, among which the pier is the favorite. It is much resorted to for sea-bathing.

MARGRAVE (from the German Markgraf, count of the mark; in Latin, Marchio ; see Marches); originally a commander intrusted with the protection of a mark, or a country on the frontier. As early as the times of Charlemagne, marks and margraves appear; for instance, the mark of Austria. The margraves stood immediately under the German kings and emperors, and not under the dukes, in whose country the margraviate was situated; yet there were also some margraves dependent on dukes. In the 12th century, mar graviates became hereditary, and, at last, the margraves acquired the rank of princes of the empire, and stood between counts and dukes in the German empire. The word mark signified, anciently, a landmark, and was then taken for countries on the frontier; as the mark Brandenburg.

MARIA DA GLORIA. See Miguel, Don. MARIA LOUISA, queen of Spain, daughter of Philip duke of Parma, born in 1751, was married to Charles IV, against his wishes, but in obedience to the express commands of his father, in 1765. Maria was prudent, not without address, and much superior to her husband in understanding. She soon overcame the violent temper of Charles, which at first broke out into acts of personal outrage, and so far prevailed over the formality of the Span. ish court as to have unrestricted access to the king. Every thing was submitted to her approval. For her favorites she took care to secure the favor of the king previ ously to avowing her own inclinations, and thus had the merit of appearing to yield to the wishes of her husband. Even while princess of Austria, an intrigue with

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the elder Godoy was only terminated by his banishment from Madrid. His place was supplied by his younger brother, don Manuel Godoy (q. v.), who became equally the favorite of Charles. (See Charles IV.) Their intrigues led to the affair of the Escurial, in which Maria acted a inost unnatural part against her son. (See Ferdinand VII.) In 1808, the revolution of Aranjuez took place, Charles abdicated, and Maria threw herself into the arms of the French. Charles was obliged to retract his abdication, and that celebrated correspondence with Murat followed, in which Maria Louisa, in a letter written with her own hand, accuses her son of hardheartedness, cruelty, and want of affection for his parents. After the well-known proceedings at Bayonne, Maria Louisa remained in France a short time with Godoy and the ex-king, and finally went to Rome, where she died in 1819. (See Spain.)

MARIA LOUISA, LEOPOLDINE CAROLINE, arch-duchess of Austria, duchess of Parma, eldest daughter of the emperor Francis I by his second marriage, with Maria Theresa, daughter of Ferdinand, king of Naples, was born in 1791, and married to the emperor Napoleon at Paris, April 1, 1810. This connexion seemed to confirm the peace of the continent. Napoleon conducted his bride, in a kind of triumph, through the provinces of his empire. March 20, 1811, Maria Louisa became the mother of a son. The court of the empress was now more brilliant than ever. The next year, Maria Louisa accompanied her husband to Dresden, and visited, in company with her imperial parents, her former home. After this she returned to Paris. Before setting out for his final struggle, Napoleon appointed her regent of the empire, with many limitations. March 29, 1814, she was obliged to leave Paris with her son, and, April 1, retired to Blois, by the command of her husband. April 11, Napoleon abdicated his authority. She then went to Orleans, and, April 12, attended by prince Esterhazy, proceeded to Rambouillet. On the 16th, she had an interview with her father, at Petit-Trianon, which decided her fate. She was not permitted to follow her husband In May, she passed through Switzerland, with her son, to Schönbrunn; and, March 17, 1816, she entered upon the adininistration of the duchies of Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla, secured to her by the treaty of Fontainebleau (April 11, 1814). April 20, 1816, she made her entry into Parma. In May, 1816, she declared her

self grand-mistress of the Constantine or der of St. George, which she had estab lished. As Spain refused to accede to the acts of the congress of Vienna, it was agreed at Paris, June 28, 1817, between Austria, Russia, France, Spain, England and Prussia, that the duchies of Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla, on the death of the arch-duchess Maria Louisa (who no longer bore the title of empress, but that of your majesty), should revert to the Infanta Maria Louisa, formerly queen of Etruria (princess of Lucca), and her male heirs, and that Lucca should then be annexed to Tuscany. Austria, however, retained the Parmesan district (surrounded by the kingdom of Lombardy) on the left bank of the Po, and the right of maintaining a garrison in Piacenza. The son of Napoleon and Maria Louisa, formerly hereditary prince of Parma, is no longer called Napoleon, in the state calendar, but Francis Charles Joseph. By the treaty above-mentioned, on the death of his mother, and the reversion of Parma to the house of Bourbon, he will receive the appanage of Ferdinand grand-duke of Tuscany, in Bohemia. In 1818, the emperor Francis conferred upon the prince, his grandson, the title of duke of Reichstadt. (q. v.) When his father returned from Elba to Paris, in 1815, a plan was formed for carrying off the young prince from Schönbrunn, where he was under the care of the countess Montesquiou, who had accompanied him from France. The empress Maria Louisa had also received letters from her husband, inviting her to come, with her son, to France; but his letters were not answered. The design of carrying off the prince, conceived by the son of the countess Montesquiou, was discovered at the moment of its execution, March 19, 1815. The prince was transferred to Vienna, and placed under the inspection of Germans. May 29, he was again restored to his mother. When she went to Parma, he remained in Vienna, where he is attended entirely by Germans. MARIA OF MEDICI. (See Mary of Me dici.)

MARIA STUART. (See Mary Stuart.)

MARIA THERESA, queen of Hungary and Bohemia, arch-duchess of Austria, and empress of Germany, daughter of the emperor Charles VI, was born at Vienna, 1717, and, in 1736, inarried duke Francis Stephen of Lorraine (who, in 1737, became grand-duke of Tuscany, by virtue of the treaty of Vienna, Oct. 3, 1735); the day after the death of Charles (Oct. 21 1740), ascended the throne of Hungary

Bohemia and Austria; and, November 21, declared her husband joint ruler. She found the kingdom exhausted, the people dissatisfied, the treasury empty, and the army (with the exception of the troops in Italy) only 30,000 strong. The elector, Charles Albert of Bavaria, supported by France, laid claim to the Austrian hereditary territories, and the electors of Cologne and the Palatinate would likewise not acknowledge the succession of Maria Theresa. Charles Albert of Bavaria was descended from Anna, elder daughter of Ferdinand I, who, by will, had appointed that, upon the extinction of the Austrian male line, the succession to the throne of Bohemia and Austria should devolve upon his daughters and their heirs. Meanwhile Prussia, Poland and Saxony, Russia, the States-General and England, declared for the queen. France only delayed to make an express acknowledgment. Just in this situation of the Austrian court, Frederic II renewed his claim to four Silesian principalities, and offered, if he received them, to defend the young queen against her enemies. At the same time (Dec. 23, 1740), he marched with an army into Silesia. Maria Theresa was as much surprised as enraged at this step of the king, and Frederic's offers were refused altogether. Meanwhile, the king made rapid progress in Silesia, where the Protestants, who were much oppressed by the government of Austria, received him with joy. The queen of Hungary, although she could nowhere find an ally, with great resolution refused any kind of submission, and collected an army in Moravia, under general Neipperg. But the want of magazines, and the bad roads, prevented Neipperg from acting effectively. The Austrians were beaten at Molwitz, April 10, 1741. Marshal BelleIsle, in the name of France, now negotiated with the king of Prussia, at Molwitz, upon the dissolution of the Austrian monarchy. Philip V, king of Spain, as a descendant in the male line of the house of Hapsburg, by virtue of the family contracts of 1617, laid_claim to the throne of Austria; Charles Emanuel, king of Sardinia, a descendant of Catharine, second daughter of Philip II, demanded Milan; Augustus III, notwithstanding the treaty just concluded by him with Maria Theresa, made similar demands on account of his wife, eldest daughter of Joseph I. France had already contrived a plan of division; however, Frederic would not accede to it, lest France should become too powerful in Germany, but turned to

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George II of England, hoping, by his means, to induce the queen of Hungary to compliance. But she remained deter mined to defend the whole kingdom of her fathers, and England promised her a subsidy of £500,000. She had even already formed the design of dividing the states of the king of Prussia, and invited the king of England first to invade them. But Great Britain_sought merely to negotiate a peace. Bavaria, in July, 1741 having begun the war against Austria, and two strong French armies having crossed the Rhine and the Maese; Frederic, likewise, having conquered almost all Silesia; the attempt at mediation, on the part of England, proved fruitless. Maria Theresa considered herself not warranted in giving up the smallest part of her kingdom. She became still more fixed in this determination, by the birth of the arch-duke Joseph. Her husband had little influence, and interfered little in the business of government. Hardly had the negotiations with Frederic been broken off, when Belle-Isle with a French army, and the elector of Bavaria, marched into Austria. Linz was taken, and the elector acknowledged arch-duke. The Bavarians and French marched to St. Pölten, and Vienna was summoned to surrender. The king of England, who wished to send assistance to Maria Theresa, was compelled, by a second French army, to conclude a treaty of neutrality, in respect to Hanover, and to promise not to oppose the elevation of the elector of Bavaria to the imperial throne. The electors of Saxony, of Cologue, and of the Palatinate, acceded to the union against Maria Theresa. Spain, on the point of entering Italy had secured the neutrality of the pope and the remaining Italian princes, and the king of Sardinia was prepared to join his troops to those of the house of Bourbon. In Silesia, Frederic was master of the capital, and on the point of uniting himself with the French and Bavarians. Maria Theresa's cause was desperate; forsaken by her allies, without troops, or money, or good ministers, she was preserved only by her courage, by the attachment of the brave Hungarians, and by the help of England. In this necessity, she summoned a diet at Presburg, and appeared before the assembly in mourning, clothed in the Hungarian fashion, the crown of St. Stephen on her head, and girt with the kingly sword. She addressed a speech, in Latin, t the states, in which she described her situa tion,and committed herself and her children entirely to the protection of her Hungarians

The youth, the beauty, and the misfortunes of the queen, made a deep impression. The magnates drew their sabres and exclaimed, "Moriamur pro rege nostro Maria Theresa." Till then she had preserved a calm, majestic demeanor; now she melted into tears, and the interest was still more increased. The troops furnished by Hungary, by their manner of fighting, and by their ferocity, spread terror through the German and French armies. In the mean time, the allies quarrelled among themselves, to which the pride of Belle-Isle much contributed, who wished to treat the German princes as vassals of France. Bavaria and Saxony contended for the supremacy. The king of Prussia therefore concluded, under British mediation (Oct. 9, 1741), a secret treaty with the English ambassador (who was invested with authority, for this purpose, by the queen of Hungary), according to which Lower Silesia was to be surrendered to Prussia. Soon after (October 26), Prague was conquered by the French and Bavarians, and the elector (November 19) was crowned king of Bohemia. He was likewise crowned emperor of Germany, at Frankfort, Feb. 12, 1742, and took the name of Charles VII. But his troops were defeated near Scharding (Jan. 23, 1742), and the electorate occupied by Khevenhiller, who gave up the land to be plundered by his army, and entered Munich upon the same day upon which Charles was crowned emperor. Frederic II, alarmed for Silesia, in consequence of the progress of the Austrians, put an end to the truce, pressed forward to Iglau, invaded Austria, and his hussars spread terror even to the gates of Vienna, He was obliged to retire, and Maria Theresa rejected his renewed proposals for peace; but the victory of Frederic at Chotusitz (May 17) hastened the conclusion of the preliminaries of peace, at Breslau (June 11, 1742). The queen ceded Upper and Lower Silesia and the county of Glatz, with the exception of the principalities of Teschen, Jagerndorf and Troppau, and the mountains on the other side of the Oppa. The definitive peace was signed the 28th July, under the guarantee of England. From this time, the arins of Austria were victorious; prince Charles of Lorraine drove back the French to Braunau, and blockaded Prague. The general opinion that the balance of Europe depended upon the continuance of the house of Austria, excited England to arm for Maria Theresa, and Holland paid her subsidies. In Italy, the king of Sardinia, injured by Spain, became recon

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ciled to Maria Theresa (who ceded to him a part of Milan), and supported the Aus. trian arms against Spain and France. The internal condition of the latter country and the age of the prime minister, cardinal Fleury, induced this statesman to think of peace. Maria Theresa rejected the proposed conditions. Maillebois, the French commander, received, therefore, orders to press forward from Westphalia to Prague. But prince Charles of Lorraine went to meet him with a part of his army, and Maillebois was compelled to give up his intention of relieving Prague. Belle-Isle, however, escaped by artifice with the greater part of his garrison, out of the famished city, and marched to Eger. The whole of Bohemia was now, as far as Eger, in the power of Austria, and Maria Theresa was (May 12) crowned queen of Bohemia. After the death of Fleury (Jan. 9, 1743), the cause of Austria triumphed throughout Europe. England granted new subsidies, and Sardinia received £200,000 in order to support the queen of Hungary. The States-General supplied 6000 auxiliary troops. French were now driven out of the Upper Palatinate, by prince Charles of Lorraine, and the Bavarians, beaten in their own territories a short time before, conquered by him. The emperor, Charles VII, concluded, therefore, with the queen of Hungary, a treaty of neutrality, according to the terms of which he delivered to her, until a general peace, his hereditary states, and renounced his right of succession to the Austrian territories. The victory of the so called pragmatic army, consisting of English, Hanoverians, Austrians and Hessians, over the French, at Dettingen on the Maine (June 27, 1743), where George II of England fought in person, confirmed the queen and her allies still more in the determination to humble France. But through a want of unanimity, the plan, that prince Charles of Lorraine should enter France, was frustrated. The emperor Charles VII, stripped of his states, had settled, with George II, the preliminaries of peace, according_to_which he broke off his connexion with France, and agreed to other stipulations favorable for the court of Vienna. In return for these, he was to be recognised as emperor, and, for the support of his dignity and for the recovery of his states, was to receive subsidies. George promised to obtain Maria Theresa's consent, but she insisted on the deposition of Charles, and wished to retain Bavaria. As little was she inclined to transfer to the king of Sardinia the

provinces promised him in the Milanese. Sardinia assumed, therefore, a threatening position. This and the representations of England compelled the queen, at length, to compliance. She gave up to Sardinia the province of Vigevano, together with some other districts, relinquished her claims on the margraviate of Finale, and gave to king Charles Emanuel III the chief command of 30,000 Austrian troops in Italy. But in spite of this, as well as of the previous victory of the Austrians near Campo Santo, over the Spaniards (Feb. 8, 1743), the Spanish and French, under the Infant don Philip subjected all Savoy. As now prince Charles of Lorraine could not effect his entrance into France, he returned to Vienna, where he married the arch-duchess Maria Anna, the sister of Maria Theresa, and received, as the reward of his service, the general government of the Netherlands. Until 1744, England and France had fought against each other as auxiliaries to the chief contending parties. Now followed a formal declaration of war on the side of France, as well against England (March 15) as against Austria (April 11). The French conquered the most important fortresses in the Netherlands, and marshal Saxe threatened to subdue the whole country, when prince Charles of Lorraine fell upon Alsace. Already the Austrian light cavalry had spread terror to the gates of Luneville, and king Stanislaus was compelled to fly from the place. The king of France, nevertheless, prepared a great force to meet the prince, and Charles was recalled in order to oppose the king of Prussia, who had again taken up arms. The proud and passionate Maria Theresa had refused to acknowledge the emperor at the diet of Frankfort. Moreover, she let her purpose be too plainly seen of holding Bavaria, of making conquests in France and Italy, of again taking Silesia, and, in connexion with Saxony and England, of dividing the Prussian states. Frederic, therefore, in order to anticipate her, and for the defence of the emperor, formed (May 22, 1744) with the emperor, with France, the elector of the Palatinate, and the king of Sweden, as landgrave of Hesse, a union at Frankfort. Accordingly, in August, he made an irruption into Bohemia, with 80,000 men, conquered Prague and the whole province upon the east side of the Moldau. The Bavarian and Hessian troops, at the same time, pressed forward into Bavaria, and placed the emperor again in possession of his capita.. The terror of them spread even

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to Vienna, but Maria Theresa remained unshaken. She animated her Hungarians at the diet of Breslau, and these, assisted by Saxony and the Austrians, hurried to the deliverance of Bohemia. Charles of Lorraine also hastened out of Alsace and Lorraine, to the borders of Bohemia, and the Prussians were again compelled to quit the kingdom. On the other hand, France conquered Freiburg the Austrian bulwark on the west, and pressed forward into the Netherlands. Even in Italy, the Austrian commander, prince Lobkowitz, after he had driven back the Spaniards, and almost made prisoner don Carlos, king of Naples, near Belletre, was compelled to retreat to Lombardy, on account of a want of troops. But the death of Charles VII (Jan. 20, 1745) opened a new field to the ambition of Maria Theresa. France endeavored anew to wrest from the house of Austria the imperial throne. But the cause of Austria prevailed, in spite of French arti fice, at the Russian court. England also assisted the queen, Maria Theresa, again with troops and money. The object of the union of Frankfort having failed, Frederic II sought the intervention of Great Britain, in order to be reconciled with Austria. In the mean time, Maria Theresa concluded a treaty (April 22, 1745) at Fuessen, with the new elector of Bavaria, by which the latter recognised the pragmatic sanction, and pledged himself to remove the foreign auxiliaries from his states, and to vote for the acces sion of the duke of Lorraine, the husband of Maria Theresa, to the imperial throne. The queen of Hungary had, besides, concluded a quadruple alliance with the king of Poland, with Holland and England (June 8, 1745), at Warsaw, as well as a treaty at Leipsic (May 18), in which secret articles were introduced respecting the division of the Prussian states between Austria and Saxony. During these proceedings, the French made some progress. After the victory of marshal Saxe over the allies, near Fontenoy (May 11, 1745), the most important places of the Austrian Netherlands fell into the hands of the French. In Italy, where Genoa united itself with Spain, the French and Spaniards took a great part of the Milanese territories, and the king of Sardinia was compelled to withdraw to his capital. In Germany also, Frederic delivered himself from a critical situation by his victory over the Austrians and Saxons, at Hohenfriedberg (June 4, 1745). Soon after, the British cabinet concluded, at Hanover