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their expense. At last, he is said to have lost his reason in consequence of a philtre, administered by his freedman Callisthenes, so that it was necessary to place him under the guardianship of his brother. He soon after died, in his 66th or 68th year. Lucullus first transplanted the cherry-tree to Rome from Cerasus, in Pontus, 680 years after the building of the city.

LUDDITES; a name given, some years since, in England, to the rioters who destroyed the machinery in the manufacturing towns. They were so called from one of their leaders, named Ludd.

LUDEN, Henry, was born at Lockstadt, in the duchy of Bremen, in 1780; studied at Göttingen; in 1806, was made extraordinary professor of philosophy at Jena, and, in 1810, professor of history. Besides numerous historical, philosophical and political treatises in periodical publications, he has written the lives of Thomasius, Grotius, and sir W. Temple, and other valuable works, among which are Ansichte des Rheinbundes (1808); Allgemeine Geschichte der Völker und Staaten des Alterthums (3d edition, 1824); Allgemeine Geschichte der Völker und Staaten des Mittelalters (1821); and Gesch. der Deutschen Völker (3d vol., 1827). In his Nemesis, or Political and Historical Journal, he attacked the statements of Kotzebue, in his secret, dangerous, and, in part, unfounded report." He superintended the publication of the duke of Saxe-Weimar's Travels in the U. States.

LUDLOW, Edmund, a distinguished leader of the republican party in the civil wars of Charles I, the eldest son of sir Henry Ludlow, was born about 1602, at Maiden Bradley, in the county of Wilts, and received his education at Oxford, whence he removed to the Temple, in order to study the law. He served with distinction in the parliamentary army, and when "the self-denying ordinance" took place, he remained out of any ostensible situation, until chosen member for Wiltshire, in the place of his father. At this time, the machinations of Cromwell becoming visible, he was opposed by Ludlow with firmness and openness. With a view of establishing a republic, he joined the army against the parliament, when the latter voted the king's concessions a basis for treaty and was also one of Charles's judges. With a view of removing him, Cromwell caused him to be nominated general of horse in Ireland, where he joined the army under Ireton, and acted with great vigor and ability. When Cromwell was declared protector, Lud

low used all his influence with the army against him, on which account he was recalled, and put under arrest. Although he refused to enter into any engagement not to act against the government, he was at length allowed to go to London, where, in a conversation with Cromwell himself, he avowed his republican principles, and, refusing all security or engagement for submission, he retired into Essex, where he remained until the death of the protector. When Richard Cromwell suc ceeded, he joined the army party at Wal lingford-house, and was instrumental in the restoration of the long parliament, in which he took his seat. The restoration was now rapidly approaching, and, finding the republicans unable to resist it, he quitted the country, and proceeded to Geneva, whence he afterwards, with many more fugitives of the party, took refuge at Lausanne, where Lisle was assassinated by some English royalists. Similar attempts were made on the lives of Ludlow and others; but his caution, and the vigilance of the magistracy of Berne, protected him, and he passed the remainder of his life at Vevay, with the exception of a brief visit to England after the revolution, from which he was driven by a motion in parliament for his apprehension, by sir Edward Seymour, the leader of the tory party. He closed his life in exile, in 1693, being then in his 73d year. Ludlow was one of the purest and most honorable characters on the republican side, without any fanaticism or hypocrisy. His Memoirs contain many particulars in relation to the general history of the times: they are written in a manly, unaffected style, and are replete with valuable matter. ( LUFF;

the order of the helmsman to put the tiller towards the lee-side of the ship, in order to make the ship sail nearer the direction of the wind.

LUGDUNUM; the Latin name of several cities; 1. a colony of the Romans, also called Lugdunus, the present Lyons (q. v.), though not on precisely the same spot 2. Lugdunum Batavorum (Lugd. Bat.); a city in Gallia Belgica, at a later period, in the middle ages, called Leithis; at present. Leyden (q. v.); hence, on the title-page of classics, Lugduni Batavorum, many of which are very fine editions. 3. Lugdu num; a city of the Convenæ, in Gullia Aquitania, most probably the present St. Bertrand. 4. Lugdunensis (Gallia) was the name given, in the time of Augustus, to a part of Cæsar's Gallia Celtica. There were Lugdunensis Prima, afterwards Lyonnois; Lugdunensis Secunda, afterwards

Normandy; Lugdunensis Tertia, afterwards Touraine, Maine, Anjou and Brittany; Lugdunensis Quarta, or Senonia, comprising part of Champagne, south of the Marne, the southern part of Isle de France, Chartrain, Perche and Orleannais.

LUGGER; a vessel carrying three masts, with a running bowsprit, upon which she sets lug-sails, and sometimes has top-sails adapted to them.

LUG-SAIL; a quadrilateral sail bent upon a yard, which hangs obliquely to the mast, at one third of its length. These are more particularly used in the barca longas, navigated by the Spaniards in the Mediterranean.

LUKE; author of one of the Gospels, which is distinguished for fullness, accuracy, and traces of extensive information; also of the Acts of the Apostles, in which he gives a methodical account of the origin of the Christian church, and, particularly, of the travels of the apostle Paul. Though these two books were designed merely for his friend Theophilus, they soon attained a canonical authority, and were publicly read in the churches. Concerning the circumstances of the life of this evangelist, nothing certain is known, except that he was a Jew by birth, was a contemporary of the apostles, and could have heard accounts of the life of Jesus from the mouths of eye-witnesses, and was for several years a companion of the apostle Paul, in his travels; so that, in the Acts of the Apostles, he relates what he himself had seen and participated in. The conjecture that he was a physician is more probable than the tradition which makes him a painter, and which attributes to him an old picture of Christ, preserved at Rome. On account of this latter tradition, however, he is the patron saint of painters, and a celebrated academy of these artists, at Rome, bears his name.

LUKE OF LEYDEN, one of the founders of modern painting in the North, stands by the side of Dürer, Holbein and Kranach, at the head of the old German school, though, strictly, he does not belong to Germany. He was born at Leyden, 1494, and enjoyed, in early life, the instruction of his father, Hugo Jacob, and afterwards that of Cornelius Engelbrechtsen, an eminent painter, and scholar of Van Eyk. At the early age of nine, he began to engrave, and, in his twelfth year, astonished all judges, by a painting, in water-colors, of St. Hubert. In his 15th year, he produced several pieces, composed and engraved by himself, among which the Trial of St. Anthony, and the Conver13

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sion of St. Paul, in regard to composition, characteristic expression, drapery, and management of the graver, are models. After this, he executed many paintings in oil, water-colors, and on glass; likewise a multitude of engravings, which spread his fame widely. He formed a friendly intimacy with the celebrated John of Mabuse and Albert Dürer, who visited him in Leyden. His unremitted application injured his health; and his anxious friends persuaded him to travel through the Netherlands. But his hypochondria was not removed. He imagined himself poisoned by envious painters, and hardly left his bed for almost six years; during which time he labored uninterruptedly, and rose to the highest rank in his art. He died in 1533, in his 40th year. This artist is excellent in almost all parts of his art, though he could not entirely divest himself of the taste which characterized the childhood of painting. His designs are striking, ingenious and varied; his grouping judicious and natural; character appears in all his figures, particularly in the heads, though this character cannot be called noble. The situations and attitudes of his figures are very various, which is the more remarkable, from the great number of persons often found in his paintings. His drawing is correct, yet not ideal, but fashioned after the models of the country in which he lived. His drapery is, indeed, mostly arranged with truth, but without taste, heavy, and deformed by many small folds. His coloring is pleasing and natural, but the aërial perspective is neglected; and there is a certain harshness, not to be mistaken, peculiar to that period of the art. Notwithstanding his high finish, he painted easily. His engravings and wood-cuts bear evidence of a most careful and steady management of the graver. They are very rare, and highly prized, particularly those in which he selected the same subject with Albert Dürer, in order to compete with him. The friends often shared their ideas and compositions; but Luke ranks below Dürer. The fullest and most beautiful collection of engravings by this master, is in the library at Vienna. His paintings are scattered about in many galleries; the principal in Leyden, Vienna, Dresden, Munich, and in the Tribuna at Florence.

LULLY, Raymond, a distinguished scholastic of the thirteenth century, author of the method called Ars Lulliana, taught throughout Europe, during the fourteenth, fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, was born in Majorca, in 1235. After having been

was worshipped by the ancient inhabitants of the earth with many superstitious forms and ceremonies. It was supposed that magicians and enchanters, particularly those of Thessaly, had an uncontrollable power over the moon, and that they could draw her down from heaven at pleasure, by the mere force of their incantations. Her eclipses, according to their opinions, proceeded from thence, and, on that account, it was usual to beat drums and cymbals, to ease her labors, and to render the power of magic less effectual. (See Helios.)

LUNAR CAUSTIC. (See Nitrate of Silter.)

LUNAR YEAR. (See Year.) LUNATICS, in medicine. (See Mental Derangement.)

Lunatics, in law. (See Non Compos.) LUND, or LUNDEN; a town in Sweden, province of Skonen, and government of Malmöhus, 5 miles from the Bultic; lon. 13° E.; lat. 55° 44' N.; population, 3224. It is a bishop's see, and contains a university, founded in 1668, by Charles IX, which has 15 professors, a botanic garden, an anatomical theatre, a cabinet of curiosities, an observatory, and a library of 40,000 volumes. The number of students, in 1827, was 631.

LUNEBURG; formerly a principality of Lower Saxony, at present a province of Hanover, with 4325 square miles, and 264,000 inhabitants. The Elbe formis its boundary on the north and north-east. Luneburg is a vast plain of sand, interrupted here and there by deep moors and forests of pine. The marshes on the rivers are, however, wonderfully productive, but they are better fitted for pasture, and the cultivation of garden vegetables, than for tillage. The rivers of the province all flow into the Elbe or the Weser, the highland which divides the basins of those two rivers being the great Luneburg heath. The dikes, which protect the country from the inundations of the Elbe, are enormously expensive. About seven tenths of the whole province are incapable of cultivation, and corn is not produced in quantities sufficient to supply the inhabitants. Flax is extensively raised, and the cattle are numerous and of a good description. Becs are kept on the heaths, and the fisheries in the rivers are important. Salt, wool, linen, beeswax and wooden-wares, are the chief exports. The great commercial road from Hamburg to Hanover and Brunswick, runs through the province, and the towns of Luneburg and Celle carry on a considera

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ble commission business. Luneburg was originally an allodial estate of the house of Brunswick, and gave its naine to one of the branches of the family. (See Brunswick.)-Luneburg, the capital of the prov ince, is an old town, with about 11,300 inhabitants, situated on the Ilmenau, which is navigable to this place for small vessels. The Kalkberg is a curious gypseous rock, 118 feet high, on which are remains of ancient fortifications, and in the quarries of which is found the rare mineral boracite. The salt springs are capable of yielding 2000 tons of salt a week. The transit trade between Hanover and Brunswick is extensive, a large number of horses being brought to Luneburg annually, and is estimated at 15,000,000

rix dollars.

LUNETTE, in the art of fortification; a very vague expression, which, in its original signification, probably comprised every detached work built in the form of an angle, and consisting of but two faces. It was afterwards used in a more limited sense, to denote, 1. Small, generally irregular, works, with or without flanks, that are placed in the principal ditch, before the ravelins, or other out-works, for the purpose of covering such places of the chief rampart, as may be seen from the open field, or of defending from the side such points as, through a mistake in the original plan of the fortifications, were left unprotected, the guns from the bastions not being able to reach them. 2. Advanced works on or before the glacis, sometimes constructed in the form of an angle, sometimes in the form of a bastion. This kind of lunettes, skilfully disposed on the weak fronts of a place, and arranged in one or two lines, so as to flank one another, may check the approach of the enemy for a considerable time, by obliging him to make his trenches at a greater distance than he would otherwise have done, and subjecting him to losses in the capture of each lunette. Particular attention must be paid to dispose them in such a manner as to render it impossible for the eneiny to attack two lunettes at the same time.

LUNEVILLE; an open city of Lorraine, department of the Meurthe, in a fruitful plain, with a castle, 3 churches, and 12,378 inhabitants. In 1735, Stanislaus Leczynski, king of Poland, to whom Lorraine and Bar had been granted, resided here. Lat. 48° 35′ N.; lon. 6° 30′ E.

Luneville, Peace of; concluded Feb. 9, 1801, between Austria (also in the name of the German empire) and the French republic, upon the basis of the peace of

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Campo-Formio. (q.v.) Belgium and the 'eft bank of the Rhine were ceded to France; Milan and Mantua to the Cisalpine (q. v.) republic; Venice, and the country as far as the Adige, Istria and Dalmatia, to Austria. The princes on the left bank of the Rhine were to be indemnified by territories within the empire. Austria ceded the Frickthal, and the strip of land between Basle and Zurzach, to France, who, in 1802, gave them to Switzerland. Austria ceded Brisgau to the duke of Modena, and consented to the erection of the kingdom of Etruria, for which the grandduke of Tuscany was to be indemnified in Germany. The valley of the Rhine formed the boundary of France. The navigation of the river was declared free, and remained so until 1804, when toll was imposed for the complete indemnification of several members of the empire. LUNGS; the organs of respiration in the mammalia (man, quadrupeds, and the cetaceous animals), birds and reptiles. The lungs are situated in the chest, and are divided into two parts, called lobes. They are enveloped in a delicate and transparent membrane,derived from the pleura,through which they have the appearance of network, and are connected with the spine by the pleura, with the neck by the windpipe, and with the heart by the roots of the pulmonary artery and veins. In their specific gravity, they are the lightest of all the animal organs, even when exhausted of air; hence their name of lights. To the touch, they are soft, spongy and elastic. In their internal structure, they are composed of an infinite number of membranous, celled blood-vessels, nerves and lymphatics, all connected by cellular substance. The cells communicate with each other, but have no communication with the cellular substance: small tubes arise from them, which are finally united into one large tube from each lobe; and these two at length join to form the windpipe. The blood-vessels called the pulmonary vessels are destined to distribute the blood through the cells, for the purpose of subjecuing it to the action of the air (see Blood, and Heart); while the bronchial vessels are intended to supply the blood which nourishes the lungs. (For the action of these organs in respiration, see Respiration.) The cetacea (whales, seals, &c.) breathe by lungs, and are therefore obliged to ascend, at intervals, to the surace of the water, to obtain a supply of atmospheric air. The respiratory orifice, in these animals, is not situated at the extremity of the snout, but on the top of the

head. In birds, the lungs are smaller than in quadrupeds, but they have air distrib uted throughout their muscular system and in the cavities of the bones.-The lungs afford a means of ascertaining whether a new-born child, which is found dead, was or was not living, when born,— a question often of great importance in forensic medicine. The lungs of the infant are placed in water, to see whether they will swim or sink. Before birth, the lungs are dark red, contracted into a small place within the cavity of the breast, firm, and specifically heavier than water. They therefore sink in water, whether they are entire or cut into pieces; and when cut, no air-bubbles come forth, either in or out of the water, nor does much blood ap pear. But if the babe has lived after birth, and therefore breathed, air has entered the lungs, has thus enlarged the cavity of the chest, and the lungs themselves are expanded, appear of a loose, spongy texture, of a pale red color, cover the heart, and fill the chest. They then swim in wa ter, as well in connexion with the heart as without it, as well entire as in pieces. If cut, a peculiar sound is audible; air proceeds from them, and rises, if they are pressed under water, in small bubbles. From the incisions in the lungs, red, and, generally, foamy blood issues. Against this test, it has been objected-1. that air may be found in the lungs, though the infant never breathed. This could happen, however, only (a) from air having been blown into them; but, in this case, the chest of the infant is not arched, very little blood is to be found in the lungs, and it is not bright red nor foamy: (b) from putrefaction; but, in this case, the other parts of the body would also be affected by putrefaction: the lungs are not expanded, pale-red air-bubbles show themselves only on the surface, and not in the interior substance, unless the highest degree of putrefaction has taken place. 2. It is said that the child may have breathed, and therefore lived, without air being found in the lungs. This is not proved, and is at variance with the received ideas of the manifestation of life. 3. That part of the lungs may swim, another may sink. This can happen only with lungs in a diseased state, and would only prove an attempt of the infant to breathe, without the possibility of living. 4. That a child may have lived without breathing; but this state of apparent death cannot be called life: life cannot be supposed without breath. If all precautions are taken, all attending circumstances considered, the external