existence of a civilized government. This proposition is so well established and universally acknowledged as to have become trite, and any further consideration of it, beyond its mere enunciation, is unnecessary. The extension and intensity of education in a nation will determine the degree of the nation's civilization, and the degree in which a nation's government is a government "for the people and by the people." This latter office of education has received the fullest recognition in the United States, and every State has declared its conviction that "knowledge and learning generally diffused through a community are essential to the preservation of a free government."

The fundamental idea of government is "the protection of society and its members, the security of property and person, the administration of justice therefor, and the united efforts of society to furnish the means to authority to carry out these objects." The first means thus furnished to authority are the powers of prescribing and enforcing "rules of action" or laws, and to punish any infraction of these laws; that is, to punish crime. But a still higher power than the mere defining and punishing of crime has been delegated by society to authority, namely, the power to prevent crime by diminishing, and, if possible, removing altogether the causes of crime. Fear of punishment helps to repress crime, but only as far as deteetion is quick and sure, and punishment swift and certain. The repressing or removing of the motives or temptations to commit crime not only represses crime, but prevents crime by making its commission impossible from its unreasonableness.

Illiteracy is incipient crime," or, as Dr. Lyman Beecher expresses it, "Uneducated mind is educated vice.' Experience has given this proposition the force of an axiom in sociology. But there is not only a necessary direct relation between illiteracy and crime; there is also a necessary direct relation between illiteracy and pauperism; and as there is no less a necessary direct relation between pauperism and crime, we have crime once more as a resultant-crime as a direct result of illiteracy; crime as an indirect result through the medium of pauperism, but no other ultimate result than crime.

Hence, in every scheme of civilized government education has been recognized as the only force sufficient to diminish and remove the causes of crime. But education has another office. From the loss of supremacy in manufactures to the terrible downfall of a warrior nation before a student nation, history teaches the lesson: Education is the first condition necessary to the prosperity of a nation. History teaches still another lesson: Education will be generally diffused only under a system of public schools; that is, under a system in which either the State by direct taxation raises the funds necessary to support for a definite length of time the schools needed to give every child a common school education, or the State compels the different municipalities to establish and maintain such schools. The American States have generally chosen the former alternative; thus testifying, in the most emphatic manner, that as the prosperity, nay, the very existence of the State, depends upon education, so education shall be the first and paramount care of the State.

The only time the people have had an opportunity to express their will, they have declared themselves overwhelmingly in favor of compulsory education. Since then the fearful increase of "hoodlumism" has made the question one of vital importance. And to save themselves from the rapidly increasing herd of non-producers, who must be supported by the community at large, to save themselves from the wretches who prey upon society like wild beasts, some demand already that a law for compulsory education be supplemented by a law requiring the State to establish and maintain labor schools, school ships, industrial and technical schools. The times demand not only that children be educated in the common English branches, but, also, that children be educated how to work.

Superintendent Bolander treats at length on the necessity of increasing the State School Tax, and proposes a minimum apportionment of $500 for each district, without regard to numbers; of the need of teachers trained in Normal Schools; and closes with the remark that

These two--long terms and qualified teachers--are the real educational forces of the State; and with them at our command, the prosperity, efficiency and usefulness of our common schools will be insured beyond peradventure.

38. SCHOOL LEGISLATION, 1874.

The only act of school legislation of any importance at this session, was the levying of a State school tax of $7 per school census child, and the apportionment of $500 as a minimum to each school or school district; the balance to be apportioned pro rata on the census children,

TEXT-BOOKS.

All the incorporated cities except San Francisco were placed under the law of State uniformity of text-books.

39. SIXTH BIENNIAL REPORT, 1874-75.

Superintendent Bolander's last report opens with the following summary of progress:

Since my last report, 29,953 children have been added to our school population; 117 new school districts, supporting 322 schools, have been organized; 274 new schoolhouses have been built and furnished, and old schoolhouses refurnished, at a cost of $613,746.41; the school expenditures have been increased $544,885.09; the school property has increased in worth $1,011,262.85; the aver

age school terms have been lengthened 1.33 months, being now 7.47 months as against 6.14 months in 1873; 34 districts, as against 464 in 1873, maintained school less than six months; 765 districts, as against 361 in 1873, maintained school more than six months; and 787 districts, as against 637 in 1873, maintained school eight months and over.

In relief to this showing of our educational statistics, I must note a great advance in the number of first grade schools, i. e., high schools, grammar schools, and schools in which high school and grammar grade studies are taught in addition to the lower grade studies; the greater number of teachers holding high grade certificates; in the better salaries paid to lady teachers; in the greater amount of funds spent for school apparatus, one-half of our districts being now supplied, at least partly, with apparatus. Much remains yet to be done, however, in the equipment of schoolhouses; for onefifth of our districts have not yet even the outhouses demanded by decency; three-fourths of the districts have not suitably improved school grounds; one-half of the districts do not furnish their schools with the necessary apparatus; and nearly one-half of the districts have not furnished their schoolrooms with improved furniture.

From July 1, 1866, to June 30, 1867, for the first time in the history of the State, every public school was made entirely free for every child; and an important transition was thereby marked in popular education. But, though every public school was made free, the ways and means provided for the public schools, and the manner of apportioning these means to the different districts, were for years such that only in the centres of wealth and population the children had sufficient facilities for obtaining a good common school education, whilst in all other sections of the State the school system was but a pretense for popular education. The system went further, for in some cases it even thrust districts from without its pale. Hundreds of districts did not receive sufficient funds to maintain in every year the three months' school guaranteed by the Constitution to every district of the State. Up to June 30, 1874, districts whose number of census children fell below a certain figure-twenty for some counties, up to as high as thirty for others-did not receive for any one school year sufficient funds to maintain a three months' school for that year.

Thanks to the last Legislature, however, for the school year ending June 30, 1875, and for the first time in the history of this State, every district received sufficient funds for not only a three months' school, but for at least a six months' school. The progress thereby made in popular education can hardly be overestimated. Short school terms-which, until last year have been the rule and not the exception in a majority of the districts of the State-place within the reach of our children only such fragmentary bites of instruction which are only a little better than none at all. Every system of popular education which does not insure to every district of the State at least an eight months' school every year, is but a sham. Long school terms are the sine qua non without which it is impossible to give our children the full measure of the amount and quality of education needed by them. Happily, the wise action of

the last Legislature has secured to our schools this first factor in every successful system of popular education. The results of this action are patent. In 1873, only 43.3 per cent. of all the districts maintained an eight months' school; in 1875, this percentage is raised to 49.53; in 1872, over 464 districts, or 31.74 per cent., did not keep a six months' school; in 1875, the number has diminished to 34, or 2.15 per cent. of all the districts in the State. In other words, all but 34 districts maintained at least a six months' school.

Superintendent Bolander condemned "text-books" in unmeasured terms, spelling-books in particular. He says:

In short, the board, and through it the State, must furnish each teacher with a Manual of Instruction. By this means we can dispense with several text-books, and reduce the bulk of the remaining text-books by rigidly excluding therefrom everything which appertains exclusively to the teacher's office. A text-book should be, what its name implies, a "book of texts.' "The sermons are to

be preached by the teacher--the book is to furnish the texts which are to be analyzed, developed, unfolded, explained, enlarged upon by the teacher--texts which need an exegesis to make them understood."

The Manual of Instruction will furthermore point out to teachers the course of culture and technical training needed by them to qualify themselves for their work; in other words, it will 'prepare teachers for their work. Being no longer able to rely upon the text-book, teachers will be compelled to assimilate some method of teaching, and, in time, will then become real teachers, instead of mere school keepers.

TRAINED TEACHERS.

For the purpose of securing professional teachers he recommended the following plan:

1. That in our State University be established a school or faculty of education with a four years course of study; all students completing and passing a satisfactory examination in the first year's course, to obtain a life certificate entitling them to teach any primary or third grade school in the State; all students completing and passing a satisfactory examination in the second year's course, to obtain a life certificate entitling them to teach any school in the State not above the intermediate or second grade; all students completing and passing a satisfactory examination in the third year's course, to obtain a life certificate entitling them to teach any school not above the grammar or first grade, and to be eligible to the office of City or County School Superintendent; all students completing and passing a satisfactory examination in the four years course, to obtain a life diploma entitling them to teach in any school of the State, including high schools, normal and training schools, and the Educational College of the University, and making them furthermore eligible to the office of State Superintendent and instructors of normal institutes.

2. That the course of study of the State Normal School be conformed to the one just sketched.

3. That any high school or college, private or public, be authorized to establish a normal school department, with a partial or full course of study as prescribed for the Educational College of the. University, provided that such department be taught only by graduates of the four years' course; that the course be the same as provided for the State Normal School, and that the students be examined and certificated only by the faculties of the State Normal School and University. If such department be connected with a public institution, tuition to be free.

4. That any City Board of Education, or County Board of Supervisors, be authorized to establish city or county normal schools, teaching partially, or in full, the course above mentioned, but their students to be examined and certificated only by the faculties of the State Normal School and University.

His plan for the establishment of Normal Institutes was as follows:

1. The present Teachers' Institutes and Boards of Examination are replaced by Normal Institutes.

2. Normal institutes are to be held annually in such places as may be determined upon, either by statute or by authority conferred upon the State Superintendent or other officer or board.

3. Every normal institute must be continued in session for not less than four weeks. It must be under the direction of a teacher who is known or proved to be a thorough normal school instructor; such teacher to be appointed by the State Superintendent, or other officer or board, as may be deemed best. Each of the teachers engaged in the State Normal School or the Educational College of the University, must conduct annually at least one normal institute.

4. Every applicant for a teacher's certificate must be present at the beginning of a normal institute; his admission as a member of the institute must be upon an examination like that required of applicants for admission into the State Normal School; he must attend the institute at least one full term; and must pass, at the end of the term, a satisfactory examination in the instruction given during the institute.

5. The expenses of the institute are to be paid direct by the State, or from the unapportioned County School Funds of the counties comprising the district in which the institute is held.

I have thus given the merest sketch of a system of normal institutes which can easily and profitably be introduced into this State. From this sketch an appropriate system can readily be elaborated; but as so much depends upon the temper and view of the Legislature, and its Committees on Education, it is preferable to leave such elaboration till the time when such committees can act upon the matter.

He quoted extensively from various writers on "School