The Venetian

Republic gradually acquires supremacy in Cyprus.

The last descendant of the family of Queen Catherine of Cyprus, and the last direct representative of the Cornaro house, was M. Catherino Corner, who died at the beginning of this century. He bequeathed the splendid Saint Cassien Palace to Pope Pius VII, who united it to the pontifical property. Gregory VII gave it to the Abbés Cavagnis, who afterwards ceded it to the Venetian municipality, and it is now the "Mont de Piété" of Venice.

As soon as the fact of King Jacques II's death was known in Venice, the Senate of that city began to interest itself in the affairs of Cyprus, and on the 22nd August, 1473, Captain General Pierre Mocenigo was ordered to take the fleet of the Republic at once to Cyprus"in order to watch over the security of the Queen and the country" and on the 2nd September, the Senate wrote to the Queen assuring her of the goodwill of Venice, promising protection in all eventualities, and informing her that Mocenigo had been ordered to leave at least five galleys in the port of Famagusta at her disposal. It appears that eight galleys were left, and the crews maintained at the expense of the republic, but on the 7th November, the Queen was asked to provide them with bread. On the 14th November, 1473, André Cornaro, Auditor of Cyprus, and uncle of the Queen, was murdered at Famagusta, and then Mocenigo received fresh orders from Venice, dated 20th December, 1473, to watch over all the affairs of Cyprus, to maintain the Queen and her infant son in possession of the throne, to prevent the establishment of any foreign power in the island, and to occupy all the strong places. On the 6th January, 1474, all the Venetian cavalry and infantry in Cyprus were placed under the command of the proveditor Jacques Marcello, and by degrees, having occupied with their troops all the fortresses, having exiled all their chief opponents, and calmed the popular feeling, the Venetian Republic acquired complete ascendancy in the island.

On the 28th March, 1474, the Senate decided that forthwith two Venetian counsellors and one proveditor should reside in Cyprus, to assist the Queen in the government and to command the forces of the Republic. François Minio and Louis Gabriel, were the counsellors, and Jean Soranzo, the proveditor first elected; minute instructions were given to them regarding the management of the revenue, the general government of the country, and the armament of the fortresses.

From August, 1474, when the infant King Jacques III died, the island though nominally ruled by Queen Catherine, was, for all practical purposes, entirely under Venetian authority, and no order of any importance could be enacted by the Queen, until it had received the approbation of the republic or the counsellors. Matters continued so until 1488, when, in consequence of the war with the Turks, the Republic of Venice determined to take full possession of Cyprus, the Senate considering the island valuable not only as regards commerce, but as a good naval and military station, and further, as the most favourable position from which to threaten and annoy the southern Ottoman provinces, and to maintain friendly relations with the Persians, whose co-operation was of great importance. Accordingly Georges Cornaro, brother of the

Queen, was sent by the Senate to Cyprus to beg Catherine to resign the crown and leave the island. He was authorized to point out that if she would not consent to this step, the Senate would be obliged to resort to measures of compulsion; the mission appears, however, to have been executed with considerable tact, and was completely successful, for in a very short time the Queen signified her assent to the proposal. Navagiero relates that the formal Abdication of abdication, and the erection of the banner of Saint Marc, took place Queen Caat Famagusta on the 26th February, 1489, in the presence of favour of François de Priuli, Captain-General of the Venetian fleet, and that Venice. the Queen soon afterwards left the island for Venice.

therine in

The new government of Cyprus was at once instituted; the Cyprus under administration consisted of a Lieutenent, with the title of Viceroy Venetian rule. of Cyprus, assisted by two counsellors (who with the Lieutenant formed the Privy Council), and a Captain, who was called Captain of Cyprus, or Captain of the Kingdom, and who added to his other duties, the function of Proveditor.

To these officials the entire direction of the government, of justice, of finance, and of the army was intrusted, save only the legislative authority and right of appeal, which was reserved to the metropolitan. The Lieutenant was never kept in office more than two years, and between 1489 and 1571, when the Turks obtained possession of the island, no less than 46 Venetian nobles held the post. The first Lieutenant was François Barbarigo, appointed in 1489, and the last, Sebastian Venier, appointed in 1569, who was to have been succeeded by Daniel Barbarigo, Duke of Candia, but before the latter left Venice to assume the vice-royalty, the news of the loss of the island was received by the Senate at Venice.

During the Venetian rule the island was divided into eleven districts, some governed by captains, others by "civitains:" the towns of Nicosia and Famagusta were placed under Cypriote Viscounts (Sheriffs) as in the time of the Lusignans. The districts were-Baffo, Avdimu, Limasol, Mazoto, Saline, Viscontado, Messaria, Carpasso, Cerinea, Pentagia, and Khrysokho.

A detailed report, compiled at the end of the fifteenth century, and containing statistical information concerning the population, the number of villages, the amount of the harvests, the products of the island, the incomes of the chief landowners, the possessions of the clergy, and the public lands in Cyprus at this date, is contained in M. De Mas Latrie's "Histoire de L'Ile de Chypre," vol. iii, page 493.

There is but little of importance or of general interest to relate concerning the period during which the Venetians ruled over Cyprus; the Lieutenants succeeded one another far too quickly to organise and establish alterations and improvements, or indeed to acquire even a sufficient knowledge of the necessities of the country, and an interest in its welfare. Once only, however, did the Greek population rebel; in 1546, an attempt was made to recall remembrances of ancient Greece, and the inhabitants combined to effect a change of masters; the Venetian government acted promptly, and soon stifled the insurrectionary feeling, the leader, Jacques Le Cretois, called the Didascalos, paid with his life for his ambitious project.

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B 2

Cyprus

During the Venetian occupation the island was visited by several calamities. In 1492 and 1542, immense destruction was caused by violent earthquakes. In 1544, the locusts were so numerous that all the crops were destroyed, and for two years the inhabitants had to be fed by provisions imported from other countries. In 1574 the rainfall was so great that the Messaria plain became a lake, and no crops whatever could be grown. More than once pirates entered the ports, and ravaged the adjoining towns with impunity.

The tenure of Cyprus by the Venetians may be described as simply a military occupation, and as no measures for its proper maintenance were taken, the prosperity of the island visibly declined throughout the whole period; trade languished, manufactures almost ceased, landowners abandoned their property, schools closed, the population emigrated, cultivation was neglected, the streams were allowed to overflow and form infectious marshes, and the national wealth rapidly diminished.*

But the greatest calamities that threatened Cyprus were the inthreatened by creasing power of the Turks, and the advance that they were making Turkey. both in Asia and Africa, so we now pass on the time at which they invaded and obtained possession of the island.

It appears that after the subjugation of Egypt by the Sultan Selim I in 1517, the tribute which, since 1425, had been regularly paid by Cyprus to the King of Egypt, was then annually sent to the Sultan of Turkey instead, and with this arrangement the old chroniclers say that "they (the Turks) held themselves well contented." Solyman the Great, was, however, succeeded on the 25th September, 1566, by the ignoble and degenerate Selim II, to whom his own national historians give the epithet of " the fool," and in 1570, the self-willed cupidity and violence of this prince, involved the Porte in a war with Venice for the acquisition of Cyprus, the possession of which island Selim had coveted, whilst he was governor of Kutahia in his father's lifetime.t

At this time a treaty of peace existed between the Porte and Venice, but Selim, endeavouring to satisfy his conscience with regard to the proposed act of aggression, obtained from his Mufti, Ebousououd, a fetva authorising him to attack Cyprus, in open violation of the treaty.

The island had, as we have seen, been at one time under Mahometan rulers, and the Turkish authorities now proclaimed, and acted upon the principle, that the sovereign of Islam may at any time break a treaty for the sake of reconquering from the misbelievers, a country which has formerly belonged to the territory of Islam The Grand Vizier, Sokolli, earnestly, but vainly opposed the war against Venice, his influence being counteracted by the suggestions of Lala Moustapha, who encouraged Selim in his project.

* See De Mas Latrie's "Histoire de L'Ile de Chypre," vol. iii, page 823. Other authors use by no means such forcible language to describe the faults of the Venetian administration, and in some respects they are even able to award praise.

It is said that Selim found the attractions of Cyprus wine irresistible, and a Jew called Joseph Nassy, who was his favourite, first gave him the idea that he should make himself master of the island.

Von Hanmer's" History of the Ottoman Empire" (German 2nd edition), vol. ii, page 402, and Sir E Creasy. History of the Ottoman Turks," page 217.

tilities.

Hostilities were commenced in February 1570, when an army Commencewas sent into Epirus, and to the frontiers of Dalmatia to overrun ment of hosVenetian territory, and to attract the attention of the Republic away from Cyprus; and further, in the middle of April, a fleet of 80 galleys and 30 galliots, under Piall Pasha, was sent to sea to prevent aid being despatched from Venice to Cyprus, and to secure the uninterruption of the invasion of the Island. Lala Moustapha was given command of the expedition against Cyprus, and on the 26th May, 1570, he, accompanied by Haly Pasha, sailed from Constantinople; at Rhodes he was joined by Piall Pasha, and the combined fleets amounted to 200 galleys, with numerous galliots, horse transports, &c.,

On the 1st July, this fleet cast anchor in the roadstead of Limasol, and the disembarkation of the troops was, owing to the negligence and incapacity of Nicholas Dandalo, who commanded the Venetian force on the spot, effected without opposition or loss; the fort of Leftari, near Limasol, also surrendered at the first summons. The Turkish army now entrenched itself, and a council of war was held to determine whether Famagusta or Nicosia should be the next object of attack. The great heat, and the unhealthy situation of the former town at this time of year, caused the decision to be in favour of an advance against Nicosia, which was the capital of the island, and centrally situated.

Nicosia was then strongly fortified; the old defences had been only recently demolished by the Venetians; new and strong walls, having a circuit of three miles, had just been constructed, and the place converted into a regular fortress with eleven bastions and three gates; the walls were defended by 250 pieces of artillery.*

The garrison appears to have consisted of from 8,000 to 10,000 men; of which number, 3,000 were Venetians, 2,500 native militia, 1,500 Italians, 1,000 nobles of Nicosia, together with Albanians and others.†

Invasion of

Cyprus by the

Turks and capture of Limassol.

On the 22nd July, Lala Moustapha reached the neighbourhood Siege of Niof Nicosia, and encamped his army within one and a half miles of cosia. the walls. It is reported that he had with him 2,500 cavalry, and 50,000 infantry, with which force he commenced a regular siege of the fortress, the troops constructing trenches, and batteries with the greatest activity. The operations of this siege, which lasted seven weeks, are well described by Knolles in his "General History of the Turks," page 848. At the beginning of September, the investing army received a reinforcement of 20,000 sailors and marines, sent by Piall Pasha from the Turkish fleet, and on the 9th of that month an assault was ordered, the attack being chiefly directed upon the Podocataro, Costanza and Tripoli bastions.

Nicosia.

The struggle was long and sanguinary, but in the end the Capture of superior numbers of the besiegers prevailed, and the gallant defenders were forced back from the walls; the Turks then entered the city, and for eight days murder and pillage reigned supreme. It is said that 14,866 of the garrison and inhabitants

*The fortifications of Nicosia are further described in Chapter III. † See Von Hanmer, French edition, vol. vi, page 403.

Siege of
Famagusta.

Operation deferred until the following

year.

Siege and capture of Famagusta.

Torture and murder of Bragadino.

perished on the 9th September, and that altogether 20,000 were killed, and 2,000 youths and girls taken away as slaves.

Lala Moustapha, leaving a garrison under Mousaffer Pacha in Nicosia, marched immediately with the rest of his army to Famagusta, arriving before the walls of that town on the 18th September, 1570; he at once constructed a redoubt from which an artillery fire was kept up against both the town and the port. The defenders, commanded by Marc Antonio Bragadino, made several brave sorties, and showed the Turks by their energetic defence that a speedy capitulation need not be expected. Lala Moustapha therefore shortly withdrew the greater part of his troops from the siege works, and retired for the winter into quarters in the villages round Famagusta, which town he, however, still endeavoured to invest in order to prevent the arrival of reinforcements or supplies.

On the 23rd January, 1571, the Venetian fleet under Marc Antonius Quirini, succeeded in eluding the vigilance of the Turks, and brought into Famagusta 1,600 men, and a quantity of provisions and warlike stores.

When the winter was over, Lala Moustapha advanced his forces nearer to Famagusta; on the 16th April he reviewed his whole army, and then at once resumed his siege works with surprising activity.

Bragadino, on his side, organized a strong defence, and his brave personal example inspired the whole garrison with a firm determination to hold their fortress to the very last extremity. The frequent assaults delivered by the Turks are well described in Knolles' work, page 863; the siege continued through the months of May, June, and July, the garrison fighting desperately against the overwhelming strength of the besiegers.*

At last provisions became scarce, and on August 1st, negociations were entered into, and a capitulation was signed under the following conditions, viz.; that the garrison should march out with their arms, five guns, and the horses of the commanders, and should be conveyed to Candia in the ships, and at the expense of the Turks; that the inhabitants should be free to quit the town and take their property, and that those who preferred to remain should be unmolested, both as regards their persons and their goods.

Accordingly, after a lapse of three days, Famagusta was evacuated, and on the 5th August, Bragadino presented himself in the Turkish camp accompanied by his chief commanders, Baglioni, Quirini and others, with an escort of 40 men. Lala Moustapha in the course of the discussion which ensued, made some complaints concerning the details of the capitulation, and becoming angry at the answers which he received, ended by making prisoners of the whole party. Baglioni, Quirini, and the other officers were at once put to death, but Bragadino, the hero of the defence of Famagusta, was reserved for gross indignities, with long and infamous tortures, under which he expired ten days later, having been at last flayed alive.

*Foglietta, and Contarini, give details concerning the assaults of the 21st and 29th of June, and of the 9th, 14th, 20th and 30th July.