consuls-L. Junius Brutus and Tarquinius Collatinus. The consular government was annually elected.

The struggle for liberty, in which the new Republic was engaged with the Etrusci and Latins, contributed to arouse that republican spirit which subsequently became the main feature of Roman character. The party which had deposed the ruling family, now took wholly into their own hands the helm of state; and the oppression of these aristocrats became at length so galling, that, after the lapse of a few rise to a sedition of the Plebs,-the consequence of years, it gave which was the establishment of annually elected Presidents of the People (Tribuni Plebis). Just previous to this (temp. 508 B. C.), took place the first commercial treaty with Carthage, in which Rome appears as a free State, although not as yet sovereign of all Latium. The political constitution of Rome received further development in the contests which now arose between the popular presidents and the hereditary nobility. The Tribunes, instead of confining themselves to the defence of the people from the oppression of the nobles, soon began to act as aggressors, which subsequently resulted in a complete equalization of rights. An illustration of this state of things is afforded by the trial of Coriolanus.

The more equitable distribution of the lands obtained by conquest, among the poorer classes, was suggested by the ambitious attempts of Cassius. The well-known code of the "Twelve Tables" confirmed the ancient institutions, and was in part completed by the adoption of the laws of the Greek Republics, especially those of Athens. Yet, as the commissioners appointed to draw up the laws were exclusively Patricians, an occasion was given for usurpation, which could be frustrated only by a sedition of the people. By the laws of the "Twelve Tables," the legal relations of the citizens were the same for all; yet that code contained little or nothing in relation to any peculiar constitution of the State, while the government not only remained in the hands of the aristocracy, who were in possession of all offices, but the prohibition of marriage, according to the new laws, of Patricians and Plebeians, interposed an insurmountable barrier between the two

classes. The consequence of this was, renewed attacks by the people upon the privileged Patricians, especially as the power of the popular leaders was now not only renewed, but even augmented-the only limit to their authority being their unanimity of decision.

New dissensions arose between the Patricians and Plebeians, one of the causes of which was the exclusive participation of the former in the consulship, of which the Tribunes demanded the abolition. This right of admission was not, however, extended to the Plebeians till after a struggle annually renewed for eighty years. Meanwhile, Rome was engaged in petty wars with the neighboring federate cities. These contests continued almost uninterruptedly, and arose out of the oppression, real or imaginary, which she practised upon them. The cities sought every occasion for asserting their independence; and the consequent struggles must have depopulated Rome, had not that evil been diverted by the policy of increasing the complement of citizens in admitting the freedmen, and not unfrequently even the conquered, to the enjoyment of civic privileges. Little as these feuds, abstractedly considered, deserve attention, they become of high interest, inasmuch as they were not only the means by which the nation was trained to war, but they also led to the foundation of that senatorial power, whose important consequences will be exhibited hereafter.

The last of these wars was that against Veii, the richest city in Etruria. The siege of that place, which lasted nearly ten years (404–395 B. C.), gave rise to the introduction, among the Roman military, of winter campaigning, and of pay. Thus, on the one hand, the prosecution of wars more distant and protracted became possible; while, on the other, the consequences were, increased taxation. About this time, Rome was reduced to ashes by the Gauls, who pressed out of Northern Italy through Etruria, and possessed themselves of the city, the Capitol only excepted. One of the chief heroes of this period was Camillus, the deliverer of Rome, who laid a double claim to the gratitude of his native city, by overruling, after

*Heeren.

his victory, the proposal of a general migration to Veii. Scarcely was Rome rebuilt, ere the former feuds revived, springing out of the poverty of the people, induced by the oppressive military taxation. Licinius, the Tribune, at this juncture having decreed that no individual should hold more than a certain amount of the national lands, the people became eligible equally with the nobles to the office of consul. The dictatorship, censorship, prætorship, and even the priesthood, quickly followed, as a matter of course. Thus political equality was conferred upon the Plebeians, with the Patricians; and the differences between them ceased, for a time, to form opposing political parties.

We now approach the true heroic age of Rome. This was introduced by the Samnite war-an engagement far more important than any in which Rome had previously been involved. In former contests her object had been to sustain her supremacy over her immediate neighbors; but in these latter wars, which continued for half a century, she opened a way for the subjugation of Italy, and laid the foundation of her future greatness. In this period commenced the practical illustration of the leading ideas of Rome upon the political relations in which she placed the States and cities she subdued. After the subjection of the Samnites, Rome, wishing to confirm her dominion in lower Italy, became entangled in war with the Tarentines, who secured the alliance with Pyrrhus. In the first two battles with this foreign prince, Rome was unsuccessful. In a subsequent engagement at Beneventum, he was defeated, and compelled to evacuate Italy, leaving a garrison at Tarentum. That city soon afterwards fell into the hands of the Romans, whose dominion became thereby extended to the extremity of lower Italy.

The early expedient of Roman colonization served the double purpose of relieving the capital of its pauper population, and of peopling her captured cities, as well as forming garrisons. This colonial system took its rise in the Samnite war, and ultimately embraced the whole of Italy. Connected with it was the construction of military highways, of which the Via Appia, constructed B. C. 312, was one,

and which, to this day, remains the lasting monument of Roman greatness. These colonies were not invested with the privileges of Roman citizenship; they possessed their own civic government, but had no share in either the Comitia or magistracies of Rome. They were obliged, however, to furnish tribute and auxiliary troops, and were in other respects amenable to the Roman præfects or magis

trates.

The constitution of Rome was at first essentially democratic, inasmuch as it conferred an equality of rights and immunities both for the poor and the opulent. It was yet a democracy so modified by ingeniously contrived expedients, that, even considering the warlike character of the people, it seemed well defended against the evils of military despotism on the one part, and popular discord on the other. Without specifying in detail its various features, it may suffice to state that it produced a senate, which at this epoch was the first political body in the world. It is remarkable that the constitution was in great part the result of experiment, no complete charter having ever been written.

The memorable war which took place between Rome and Carthage, and which lasted twenty-three years (B. C. 264-241), although it cost her much, was the first step in her splendid series of triumphs. Considering its important consequences, with the great heroes enlisted on both sides, as well as the vastness of the struggle, an interest attaches to it, surpassing that of any other age. The occupation of Messina by the Romans gave rise to this war; it resulted in driving the Carthaginians from Sicily. Thus the conquest of Carthage gave its pre-eminence to Rome. No monument of Carthage-the stupendous rival of the Romans-now remains to point out the ancient splendor of that Republic. That city, originally founded by a Tyrian colony about eight centuries prior to the Christian era, became the capital of a powerful Republic, which continued upwards of seven centuries; during which time it controlled the commerce of the world. Her interval of peace, which lasted seventy years, was the epoch of her glory-she was then the most renowned of the inde

pendent States of antiquity; but the love of conquest was the procuring cause of her ultimate overthrow.

When the Carthaginians resolved to have provinces instead of factories, and garrisons instead of colonies, a large force became necessary in order to keep possession of the conquered lands. From the time that a nation of merchants becomes a nation of princes, and exchanges commercial pursuits for territorial possessions, it abandons its proper strength for alien weakness, and fixes the limits of its own duration. The spirit of party and faction scarcely appeared in Carthage, until after the Republic had yielded to the trial of conquest, and the passion for territorial aggrandizement. The strength of Carthage in the war with Rome depended merely on its mercenaries and its money: it was founded on sand and gold-dust; when the tide of fortune turned, both were swept away. There were, however, other elements of social demoralization among the Carthaginians, which tended in no small degree to their overthrow. Their religion allowed the horrid rites of Moloch: they attempted to propitiate their deities by human sacrifices. The immolation of infants was carried to a fearful extent, even by their infatuated mothers. To a flagrant and undisguised disregard of female honor has been ascribed this frequency of infanticide.*

The conquest of Carthage inspired the Romans with arrogance, and although, ostensibly, her constitution remained unchanged, by it the power of the Senate acquired an undue preponderance. An illustration of this was seen in her invasion of Sardinia, in the midst of peace. Rome's maritime power was also extended in the Adriatic, and at the same time she formed her first political relations with the Grecian States. In the mean time Carthage was endeavoring to atone for the loss of Sicily and Sardinia, by extending her Spanish dominions. Rome at this time numbered, in all Italy, an army of eight hundred thousand men. While Hannibal, who had the command in Spain, was. meditating a descent upon Rome, the preparations she made for defence show that it was not believed

* Dr. Cooke Taylor.