in such speculative matters, we shall probably content the reader by a rapid survey of the geographical limits of the Hellenic States, together with an outline sketch of their rise, progress, and decay. Greece, bounded on the north by the Cambunian mountains, which separate it from Macedonia, on the south and east by the Ægæan, on the west by the Ionian sea, extended two hundred and twenty geographical miles in length by one hundred and forty in breadth. In its salubrity of climate, variety and fertility of soil, it possessed advantages unequalled by any other country of similar extent. Situated in the vicinity of the three quarters of the world, on three sides washed by the sea, and abounding with commodious ports and harbors, its advantages for commerce and navigation were scarcely less conspicuous. It was divided into Northern Greece, comprehending Thessaly and Epirus; Central Greece or Hellas, which included Attica with its Marathon, Megares, Boeotia with its Thebes, Platea, and Charonea; and the southern peninsula, or Peloponnesus, containing Arcadia, Achaia with its twelve cities, and Laconia with its Sparta. Its jurisdiction also extended to groups of islands adjacent in the Ionian and Egæan seas, as well as more extensive separate islands.

Greece was originally peopled by several insignificant races of barbarians: among them two principal tribes claim our notice-the Pelasgi and the Hellenes. These were of Asiatic origin, but of different dialects. The Pelasgians settled in the Peloponnesus about 1800 B. C. Although rude in their origin, they are supposed to have made some advances towards civilization, since they founded the ancient states Argos and Sicyon; and to them are attributed those marvellous monuments termed Cyclopian. They spread towards the north, founded Attica, made settlements in Thessaly, and existed as a people for one hundred and fifty successive years.

The Hellenes-subsequently so called from Hellen, one of their chieftains--originally the weaker of the two tribes, made their first appearance in Phocis, near Parnassus, under Deucalion. They afterwards invaded Thessaly, expelled from thence the Pelasgi, and subsequently drove them to Arcadia. The gradual spread of the various

branches of the Hellenic tribe over Greece was effected by several migrations; after which they preserved the settlements they had already obtained, until the later migration of the Dorians and Heraclidæ, about 1100 B. C.

Besides these original inhabitants, colonies at the same early period came into Greece from civilized countries,-from Egypt, Phoenicia, and Mysia. Much of their early attainments in domestic civilization is to be traced to these foreign sources, as well as their mythological and religious rites and observances. These, however, became in their adoption less Egyptian, Asiatic, or Thracian than Grecian. To their religious system, in part, is to be ascribed their progress towards polished refinement. The ancient minstrels or bards contributed to this end, by their dissemination of moral and religious sentiment, diverting them from a love of barbarous warfare to the advantages of civilized life. The oracles of Delphi, Dodona, and Olympia were no less powerful to the same end. The necessity of consulting these sanctuaries naturally led men to regard the oracles as the common property of the nation; and thus these various tribes, who had been hitherto strangers, met in peace; and hence arose spontaneously the first idea of a commonwealth and a confederacy.

It was at Delphi that the most important and the most protracted of these political reunions-that of the Amphyctions-occurred. It adopted the principle that none of the cities belonging to the league should be destroyed by the others. We now discover the germ of the chivalric spirit of the nation, and the development of its youthful vigor in the heroic ages. A love of daring adventure and heroic exploit, not only individually but also in confederate bodies, led them beyond the limits of their fatherland. These emprises of valor being rehearsed by their bards, they thus acquired a national poesy such as no other people possessed, and such as contributed to the fuller development of the national genius. At this juncture, when the combined Hellenic nations were ripe for some grand military expedition, came the memorable siege of Troy. The most important result of that war was the kindling of one common national spirit—a spirit

which even survived all the domestic feuds and animosities. This expedition, which lasted ten years, and was crowned with such signal success, caused the Hellenes to regard themselves ever after as one people. The Trojan war was quickly followed by tempestuous times,internal strifes, and incursions from the ruder tribes of the North, shook Greece during an entire century. The Dorians with their allies strove to possess themselves of Peloponnesus, and, after repeated attempts, at length the Heraclidae succeeded in revolutionizing the Hellenic States. The territories of Argos, Sparta, Messene, and Corinth were wrested from the Achæans, who had hitherto inhabited them. The Achæans expelled, in their turn, the Ionians, and formed the settlement called Achaia; while the fugitive Ionians were received by their former kinsmen, the Athenians.

But among the consequences of this migration of the Hellenic races must be reckoned likewise the establishment of Greek colonies in Asia Minor—an occurrence of the highest import to their national development. This colonization, commenced by the Eolian Hellenes, was soon followed by the Ionians, and even the Dorians. Among the effects of these migrations and wars was not only an interruption to the progress of civilization, but even almost entirely the annihilation of it; yet in this universal movement the foundation was laid of that constitution of things which afterwards existed in Greece.* The tribes which had migrated, as well as those which had been expelled, remained at first under the dominion of their hereditary princes, some for a longer, others for a shorter period. In the two centuries, however, immediately subsequent to the migrations (B. C. 1100-900) republican constitutions took the place of hereditary clanship in all the Grecian countries, the distant Epirus excepted. These republics continued to exist amid the various revolutions which happened, and the love of political freedom became from this time the national sentiment. In this newly-constituted order of things, each city with the territory around it formed a separate state, and framed its own constitution; hence there arose as many free states as cities. Although

*Heeren's Researches.

thus parcelled out into a number of petty states, there existed a certain unity among the Hellenic race, a certain national spirit: this was produced in part by their custom of attending the national festivals and games; and this union was further promoted by the Amphictyonic council, from which originated Grecian ideas of international and judicial law. Even at this early period Sparta and Athens became distinguished for their superior constitutions and laws. These two cities in fact constitute a leading essential in subsequent Grecian history. We now approach a revolutionary era in the government of Sparta. The Achæans were previously governed by princes of the house of Perseus; the royal power was now divided between the families of Procles and Eurysthenes. Soon the Dorians acquired the conquest of many of the cities of the peninsula, and the Achæans became for a time their bondsmen. The Spartans, however, ultimately usurped authority over the whole country, which they continued to retain. The records of the two following centuries, to the time of Lycurgus, are filled with a series of belligerent engagements on the part of the Spartans with their neighbors, the Argives. Lycurgus gave to Sparta about the year 800 that constitution to which she was principally indebted for her subsequent splendor. His laws were not written, but conveyed in apophthegms, which were confirmed by the oracle of Delphi. The principal object of the laws of Lycurgus was to insure the existence of Sparta, by creating and supporting a vigorous and uncorrupted race of men. His grand maxim was, "that children were the property of the State, to which alone their education was to be intrusted."

With the view of equalizing the two extremes of great wealth and great indigence, he divided the lands into equal lots, proportioned to the number of the inhabitants. This partition of the territory met with violent opposition from the opulent, as might have been expected; but such was the commanding influence of this great man, that he triumphed over all opposition. He also appointed public tables, at which all citizens were enjoined to eat together without distinction. The diet was simple, and each had to contribute his quota for the repast. On

these occasions of public feasting, the conversation was restricted to topics wholly of an instructive kind. Xenophon observes, "they were schools not only of temperance and sobriety, but also for instruction." Soon after the time of Lycurgus, the Spartans increased greatly their territory by their wars with the Messenians; and although a long interval elapsed before the former made any further attempts at invasion, yet on the deposition of Demaratus, Cleomenes, his former colleague, was compelled to bear a part in the Persian war. That struggle, together with the idea of supremacy in Greece, which had now taken its rise, introduced a series of political relations before unknown.*

It was at this epoch that the seeds of strife were sown between the rival republics of Sparta and Athens.

The history of Athens during this period, observes Heeren, is rendered important rather by domestic revolutions, which gradually tended to convert the State into a republic, than by external aggrandizement. The situation and peculiarities of Attica, rendering it less exposed than other parts of Greece to the attacks of wandering hordes, favored the tranquil growth of national prosperity. The history of Athens, as a State, begins properly with Theseus (temp. 1300 B. C.); although certain institutions, such as that of the Areopagus, the division of the people into nobles, husbandmen, and mechanics, may be traced to the colony of Cecrops. The last king was Codrus, who by a voluntary sacrifice of his life rescued Attica from the inroads of the Dorians, in 1068. The period of the Archons lasted till the year 752 B. C. From that time until 682 no remarkable events occurred, except the internal commotions which were occasioned by the oppressive exactions of the aristocratic party. From this state of anarchy Athens was rescued by Solon; a man to whom not only Athens, but the whole human race, are deeply indebted. He effected the happiness of his country, by remodelling the constitution of the State.

Solon not only aimed to invest the administration of government

Heeren's Researches.