the relative position of the features cannot change so that, if the picture appears to look at us once, it must appear to look at us always. If we move to one side of a portrait, the change which happens is unlike that which would take place in a bust, or living face. The picture is merely foreshortened, so that we see a narrower image of a face, but it is still that of a face looking at us. And if the canvass be transparent, the same effect takes place from the back of the picture.

EYE, in architecture, is used to signify any round window made in a pediment, an attic, the reins of a vault, or the like.

EYE, in agriculture and gardening, signifies a little bud, or shoot, inserted into a tree by way of graft.

EYE OF A DOME; an aperture at the top of a dome, as that of the Pantheon at Rome, or of St. Paul's at London it is usually covered with a lan

tern.

EYE OF A TREE; a small pointed knot, to which the leaves stick, and from which the shoots or sprigs proceed.

EYEBRIGHT (Euphrasia officinalis); a small plant belonging to the natural order rhinanthacea, which is found in Canada and in the northern parts of Europe. It is annual, from three to eight inches high, often much branched; the leaves ovate and dentate; the flowers axillary and almost sessile; the corolla is monopetalous, white, streaked with purple, and with a yellow spot on the lip. The whole plant has a bitter taste. It formerly enjoyed a great reputation in diseases of the eyes, probably on account of the brilliancy of its flowers.

EYELET HOLES; round holes worked in a sail, to admit a small rope through, chiefly the robins (or rope-bands), and the points or reef-line.

EYELID. The eyelid is the external covering of the eye. Its peculiar adaptation to its proper offices cannot be sufficiently admired. It forms the cover which closes the eye during sleep, when it remains motionless for hours; it serves the purpose of wiping and cleansing the ball of the eye, as well as moistening it by spreading the tears over its surface, for the performance of which offices it is, during the waking hours, in incessant motion. It screens the eye also from excessive light, which might often be injurious or destructive to it. The sympathy between the eye and its lids is very close, as was absolutely necessary to their proper action; and this is so much the case, that in weak

ness of the nerve of the eye, the smarting, which warns us to close them, is always felt in the lids. Their diseases, like those of the eye, are various, but of minor importance.

EYLAU, Preuss; a small town, about 28 miles distant from Königsberg, in Prussia Proper, with 1500 inhabitants, on the lake of Arschen, famous for one of the bloodiest battles on record, fought between Napoleon and the allied Russians and Prussians, on the 7th and 8th of February, 1807. The chief battle was on the 8th, and lasted 12 hours, amid the thunder of 300 cannons. The carnage was increased by a fall of snow, which, by causing the column of Augereau to march too far to the left, and thus fail of their object, caused the battle to be much longer protracted. Augereau himself was wounded, and his corps dissolved and incorporated with the others, so much had it suffered. Ney and Davoust, who were despatched by the emperor Napoleon to outflank the enemy, at last succeeded, and decided the battle; but the loss on both sides was terrible. Nine Russian generals had been wounded; three French generals killed, and five wounded. The Russian killed were estimated at 12000, by some, only at 7000. The loss of the French was estimated at 42,000 men; their own statements, however, make it much less. So much is certain-neither side obtained its object; and had not the young officer despatched by Napoleon with the orders for the battle, &c., to Bernadotte, fallen into the hands of the Russians, there is little doubt that the French would have gained a complete victory. (See the beginning of vol. ii. of the Memoirs of Savary, duke of Rovigo, and Bothmer's Map of the Battle, of Eylau.) According to Schöll (viii. 405), Napoleon, on February 26 and April 29, offered a separate peace to the king of Prussia; but he concluded a new alliance with Alexander, April 26. The battle of Friedland followed, and the humiliating peace of Tilsit was concluded.

EYNARD; a gentleman distinguished for his great exertions in favor of the liberty of Greece. He is a banker at Geneva and Leghorn, and is descended from a French family, several members of which fled to Geneva in the times of the religious persecutions. He was born at Lyons, Sept. 28, 1775. In 1793, he fought in defence of his native city. When Lyons was conquered by the convention, his family fled to Rolle, in the Pays de Vaud. In 1795, in connexion with his brother, he

established a commercial house in Genoa, where he served as a volunteer when Massena besieged the city. In 1801, he contracted for a loan to the king of Etruria; and, at a later period, he received the lucrative office of farmer-general of the commerce of salt and tobacco in Tuscany, from the princess Eliza, wife of Bacciocchi. (q. v.) In 1810, he was one of the deputies of Tuscany to Paris, and, in 1814, was present at the congress of Vienna. The grand-duke Ferdinand granted him letters of nobility, and sent him on a special mission to the congress of Aix-laChapelle. In 1819, Mr. Eynard was living at Geneva, where he displayed great hospitality, and, for several years, was one of the most effectual and ardent promoters of the Greek cause. He made very considerable advances, was at the head of collections for the Greeks, and quite lately (in 1830) succeeded in procuring a loan of one million and a half of francs for them at Paris.

EZEKIEL; the third of the great prophets, a son of Buzi, of the race of priests.

He was carried away, when young (about 599 B. C.), into the Babylonish captivity. Here he received the gift of prophecy, while he was among other captives, by the river Chebar. He was commanded by God in a vision to speak to the children of Israel and to watch over his people. In another vision, God revealed to him the sufferings which the Israelites were to undergo for their idolatry. God also revealed to him the end of the captivity, the return of his people, the restoration of the temple and city, and, fmally, the union of Judah and Israel under one government, and the return of their former prosperity. He was also miraculously informed of the siege of Jerusalem by the Chaldeans, and communicated the information to his fellowexiles. He prophesied against Egypt, against Tyre and Sidon, against the Idumeans and Ammonites. His prophecies are divided into forty chapters; they are obscure, full of poetic fire, and were not received into the Jewish canon till a late period. The time and manner of the prophet's death are uncertain.

F is the sixth letter of the English alphabet, and represents the sound produced by bringing the upper teeth against the lower lip, and then breathing with a hissing noise. It therefore belongs to the semi-vowels, and to those which the Germans call Blaselaute (blowing sounds). This aspiration may be more or less violent. It may even be so soft as to pass over into a mere aspirated h, and is sometimes entirely lost; as the Latin facere, in the pronunciation of Spain, became hacer, and is now pronounced only acer. In the same way fundus became hondo (deep). F, in etymology, is altogether an unsettled sound, passing into h, and v, and b, on the one side, and into p on the other, as many letters pronounced with similar organic movements are found to take each other's places in the various mutations of languages. At the beginning of a word, f often does not belong to the root, particularly before r and 1; for fis little more than a strong aspirate, and it is well known that the aspirates are not objects of much care before a language has be

come settled by writing, or with persons who do not write; as the lower classes in England so often omit the h where it should be pronounced, and pronounce it where it does not belong. Thus, for instance, we find the root of the German flamme, English flame, in the Danish and Anglo-Saxon lioma, connected with the Latin lumen, the root of flamma (flame). The English fresh, German frisch (pronounced frish), is from the Low-German risch (pronounced rish) and the German rasch (quick). The Eolians, finding the H aspirated, changed it into a sound without aspiration, and used, in order to indicate it, two r (gammas), one above the other which was the origin of the character F.

The Romans for some time used F inverted, thus, I, for V consonant, as TERMINAJIT for TERMINAVIT, or DIMI for DIVI. Some have supposed that this was one of the three letters invented by Claudius, but many inscriptions, belonging to periods much anterior to the time of Claudius, exhibit this singular use of this letter.

The Germans pronounce v like f.

The Romans often put f for ph, as, on some medals, triumfus for triumphus, faria, focas, &c. This is always done by the Italians and Spaniards, as, filosofia. Klopstock, and some other Germans, attempted to introduce the same manner of writing, and published a few works with this and other changes in the orthography, but they soon abandoned it. In languages in which the vowels do not prevail so much as in Italian or Spanish, it is of greater importance to retain the etymological orthography.-The ƒ with the Romans, and with the Greeks, was branded upon the forehead of runaway slaves. It signified fuga and pavy. F signified, as a number, among the Romans, 40; with a dash over it, 40,000. F, on engravings or pictures, stands for fecit or faciebat (made). In jurisprudence, ff signifies the pandects. This abbreviation originated in the early period of the art of printing, when no Greek characters had yet been cast, and ff was used for, the first letter of Tavdékrat. On medals, monuments, &c., F stands for Fabius, Furius, &c., Filius, Felix, Faustus, &c. FF, on Roman coins, means flando, feriundo. On French coins, F means the mint of Angers; on Prussian coins, of Magdeburg; on Austrian, of Halle in the Tyrol. F with merchants, signifies folio (page). F often stands on documents for fiat (let it be done, granted, &c.). Fl. is the abbreviation for florin, or guilder; fr. for franc; ff, in German, for folgende, like seq. in English.

F; the nominal of the fourth note in the natural diatonic scale of C. F, in music, over a line, means forte; ff, molto forte.

FA. The name given by Guido to the fourth note of the natural diatonic scale of C.

FABBRONI, Giovanni, an eminent Italian philosopher, who distinguished himself by his attention to political economy, agriculture and physical science. He was secretary to the Academia der Georgofil director of the museum and cabinet of natural history at Florence, one of the forty members of the Società Italiana delle Scienze, Tuscan deputy for the new system of weights and measures, member of the deputation of finance under the government of the queen regent of Etruria, one of the deputies to the corps législatif in France, director of bridges and highways (under the imperial government) for the department beyond the Alps, director of the mint at Florence, royal com

missary of the iron works and mines, and one of the commissioners of taxes for the states of Tuscany. In all these posts he displayed activity, zeal, intelligence, and integrity. His writings, which attracted much notice at the time of their publication, are remarkable not only for the striking facts, the sound maxims, and the extensive views in which they abound, but also for the impressive manner in which the opinions of the author are enforced. The best known of his works are his Provvedimenti Annonarj; his Discourses on National Prosperity; on the Equilibrium of Commerce, and the Establishment of Custom-houses; on the Effects of the Free Traffic in Raw Material; on Rewards for the Encouragement of Trade; on the Chemical Action of Metals; on the Value and Reciprocal Proportion of Coins; on the Scales and Steelyards of the Chinese; on the Palaces of Spain; and on the Ancient Hebrew People. He left behind him many learned memoirs, and a number of very valuable manuscripts. He died at Florence in 1823, aged upwards of seventy.

FABII; an ancient and renowned family of Rome. One of the stories in ancient Roman history, is, that all of them who were able to bear arms, 306 in number, once fought together against the Vejentes, on the little river of Cremera (477 B. C.), and were killed, to a man.

FABIUS MAXIMUS, Quintus, surnamed Cunctator (the delayer), one of the greatest generals of ancient Rome, saved his country, when it was threatened with ruin after the defeat at Thrasymene, and Hannibal, with his victorious army, was advancing upon Rome. At this critical moment, Fabius took the command of the Roman legions as dictator, and, finding his own army dispirited, while that of Hannibal was numerous and formidable, he formed the plan of weakening and fatiguing the enemy by marches and delays, instead of risking the fortunes of the state upon the event of a single battle. Hannibal, who well knew the character of his formidable opponent, sent him this message, in order to draw him into battle. "If Fabius is as great a general as he would make us believe, let him descend to the plain, and accept the challenge which I offer him." But Fabius coolly replied: "If Hannibal is as great a general as he thinks himself, let him compel me to accept his offer." Dissatisfied with his cautious movements, which they ascribed to a false motive, the Romans summoned him back to the city under pro

tence of wishing his presence at a solemn sacrifice, and, in the interim, gave a joint command, with equal power, to Minucius Felix, who was as rash as Fabius was prudent. He had already fallen into an ambuscade, and was on the point of being routed by the Carthaginian general, when Fabius arrived just in season to save him. Minucius, penetrated with gratitude, gave up his share of the command, and resolved to learn of Fabius how to fight and conquer. At the end of the campaign, Fabius laid down his office. The new consul, Terentius, a presumptuous and ignorant man, risked a battle at Cannæ, in which the Roman army was almost totally destroyed. Fabius, after the battle, negotiated with Hannibal for the ransom of the prisoners, and, when the senate refused to fulfil the agreement, he sold his own estates, in order to keep good his word. He died at a very advanced age, 202 B. C.

FABLE, which, in its most extensive sense, is synonymous with fictitious narration, has, in poetry, a double signification, since it expresses, in dramatic and epic poetry, the tissue, the arrangement of the events related, and is also the name of a particular class of poetical writings. When we speak of the fable of an epic or dramatic poem, it is used in opposition to history. The poet's description aims at beauty, his piece must please as a whole, and the occurrences must be so arranged and exhibited as to accomplish this end. He paints not the real, but the possible; not things as they are, but as they might well be; not with historic truth, but according to the laws of poetical probability. The fable, as a particular kind of poetry, sometimes called apologue, is justly considered a species of didactic composition, and is a kind of allegory. It may be described as a method of inculcating practical rules of worldly prudence or wisdom, by imaginary representations drawn from the physical or external world. It consists, properly, of two parts: the symbolical representation, and the application, or the instruction intended to be deduced from it, which latter is called the moral of the tale, and must be apparent in the fable itself, in order to render it poetical. On account of its aim, it lies upon the borders of poetry and prose; is rarely in true poetic spirit, and pleases independently of its object. The satisfaction which we derive from fables does not lie wholly in the pleasure that we receive from the symbolical representation, but lies deeper, in the feeling that the order of nature is

the same in the spiritual and the material worlds. In the material world, the eter nal forms of laws and qualities are more uniform and perceptible, than in the moral world, and, for this reason, the fabulist (whose object is not merely to render a truth perceptible by means of a fictitious action, for a parable would do this) chooses his characters from the brute creation. Herder, in his Scattered Leaves (Zerstreüten Blättern), 3d vol., is very full on this subject. He divides fables into -1. Theoretic, intended to form the understanding; thus a phenomenon of nature, as illustrative of the laws of the universe, is used to exercise the understanding. For example, when the dog, with a mouthful, snaps at a shadow in the water; when the sheep contends with the wolf, or the hare hunts with the lion.-2. Moral, which contain rules for the regulation of the will. We do not learn morality from the brutes, but view the great family of nature, and observe that she has connected the happiness of all living creatures with the unchangeable, eternal law of effort, and take example from the observance of this law by the lower orders of creation; as, for example, "Go to the ant, thou sluggard !”.. 3. Fables of fate or destiny. It cannot always be made evident how one thing follows as a necessary consequence from another; here, then, comes in play that connexion of events which we call fate, or chance, and which shows that things follow, at least after, if not from one another, by an order from above. Thus the eagle carries, with her plunder, a coal from the altar, which sets fire to her nest, and thus her unfledged brood becomes the prey of animals which she has already robbed of their young. The plan of the fables is regulated by this threefold division of the subject and character. In general, it must possess unity, that the whole tenor of it may be easily seen; and dignity, since the subject has a certain degree of importance. But this does not exclude gayety nor satire. Some fables are founded upon irony; some re pathetic; and some even aspire to the sublime. The writers of ancient fables were simple, calm, and earnest. The oldest fables are supposed to be the Oriental; among these, the Indian fables of Pilpay (Billpai or Bilpai), and the fables of the Arabian Lockman, are celebrated. (Ser those articles.) Esop is well known among the Greeks, and was imitated by Phædrus among the Latin writers. Bodmer has published German fables of the time of the Minnesinger. Boner, who

ived at the close of the 14th century, shows, in his Edelstein, that he possessed the true spirit of fable. The author of Reynard the Fox wrote a collection of serious fables. Burkard Waldis may be mentioned, in the 16th century. In the 17th, Gay among the English, and La Fontaine among the French, were distinguished. The writer last named made fable the vehicle of wit, and spoke the language of society. Lessing, Pfeffel, and others, united fable and satire in the sharp point of their epigram. Fables may have the form of narrative or dialogue.

FABLIER and FABLIAUX. (See French Literature.)

FABRE D'EGLANTINE, Philippe François Nazaire, was born at Carcassonne, in 1755. In his youth he was much ad dicted to excess, and became, successively, a soldier and an actor. He played in Geneva, Lyons and Brussels, without much success. His accomplishments and poetical talent rendered him more suc-. cessful in society. As early as his 16th year, he wrote a poem (L'Etude de la Nature) for the prize offered by the French academy, 1771. Having afterwards gained the prize of the Eglantine at the Floreal games in Toulouse, he assumed the name of that flower as a surname. He now wrote several theatrical pieces, of which, however, only two, L'Intrigue épistolaire and the Philinte de Molière were successful. The latter is still considered one of the best character-pieces of the modern French stage. Of an ambitious spirit, he engaged with ardor in the revolution, acting with Danton, Lacroix and Camille Desmoulins, wrote several revolutionary pamphlets, and was active on the 10th of August. Having been chosen deputy from Paris to the national convention, he at first supported moderate principles, but afterwards voted for the death of Louis XVI, without appeal, and was chosen a member of the committee of public safety. He attacked Brissot and the Girondists, and made a report on the introduction of the republican calendar, on which occasion he betrayed a great ignorance of astronomy. He afterwards became suspected by the Jacobins, was accused of being a royalist, and condemned to death April 5, 1794.

FABRETTI, Raphael, one of the most learned antiquarians of modern times, born 1618, at Urbino, in the papal dominions, devoted himself to the study of law in the school at Cagli, where he received a doctor's degree in the 18th year of his age. He then went to Rome, where his

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elder brother, Stephen, a respectable lawyer, was residing. On this classic ground, covered with the remains of antiquity, he conceived a fondness for the study of antiquity, in which he gained so much fame by his profound researches, his penetration and ingenuity. He found powerful patrons in his professional career. was sent to Spain by the cardinal Lorenzo Imperiali, with an important public commission; after the successful termination of which he was made papal treasurer by Alexander VII, and, soon after, auditor of the papal legation at the court of Madrid. The leisure which these posts secured to him for 13 years was employed in archeological studies. He was afterwards enabled to examine the antiquities of Rome on the spot, by the return of the nuncio, Carlo Bonelli, who, being appointed cardinal, took Fabretti back with him to Rome. On the journey through France and Upper Italy, he ex amined all the monuments of antiquity that fell in his way, and formed an ac quaintance with the most celebrated antiquarians-Menage, Mabillon, Hardouin and Montfaucon. On his arrival in Rome, he was promoted to the office of counsellor of appeals, in the Capitoline court of justice an office which afforded him sufficient leisure to prosecute his fa vorite studies with indefatigable industry. The confidence of cardinal Cesi, however, soon called him to a different occupation. He was obliged to accompany the cardinal, who was appointed legate of Urbino, in the capacity of legal counsellor, and, in this situation, had an opportunity of serving his native city in various ways. He returned, after three years, to Rome, where he resided till his death, and found a powerful patron in the vicar of Innocent XI, cardinal Gasparo Carpegna. From that time, he devoted himself wholly to antiquarian researches. His first works on this subject (his three dissertations on the Roman aqueducts and his Syntagma de Columna Trajani) received the approbation of all the archaeologists except Gronovius, with whom he had a dispute of some bitterness about the meaning of cer tain passages in Livy. With equal erudition, Fabretti afterwards examined the bass-reliefs now in the Capitoline Museum, illustrative of the siege of Troy, and known by the name of Iliac table, as also the subterranean canals, made by Claudius, for draining off the waters of lake Fucinus. In these, as in the numerous inscriptions discovered and collected by him, he showed the depth of his archaeo