Chinese is the learned language. The Japanese language has 47 radical syllables, with a small number of regular changes. The Japanese are the most civilized and refined nation of Asia, a noble, proud people, intelligent, docile, and desirous of instruction. Art and science they value, even in nations whom they otherwise despise for their unworthy conduct, and the shameful treatment to which they are willing to submit for the sake of gain. Since the arrival of the Europeans, by whom they were taught, they have made considerable progress in several sciences. History, astronomy and medicine (in which cautery or burning with moxa, and acupuncture are practised), are pursued with zeal. Their progress, however, in medicine and geography, is comparatively small. Poetry, music and painting are held in estimation; and, in the latter, the Japanese are superior to the Chinese. Like the Chinese, they claim the invention of gunpowder and of printing. Children are sent to school at an early period, and educated with great strictness. The exportation of books is prohibited, at least, of such as contain any account of the government and country, as well as of maps and coins. The importation of religious books is as strictly forbidden. On the arrival of Dutch vessels, they are obliged to deliver their religious books in a box to the Japanese commander of Nangasacki, and receive them again on their departure. The Japanese are active, cleanly and laborious, kind, cheerful and contented, but sensual and revengeful. Their superstition is encouraged by a priest.y government, opposed to all intelligence, and a numerous clergy. The government is despotic and severe, and the laws very strict. The will of the emperor is the supreme law; after it, the will of the petty princes dependent on him, who rule their provinces as strictly as he does the whole empire, and, notwithstanding their dependence, possess the right of waging war against each other. The greatest part of the inhabitants are oppressed by poverty, since the peasant is obliged to surrender half, and in many places even two thirds of his earnings to the landlord, who regards himself as the sole proprietor of the soil. In order to prevent conspiracies, each one is made, by the law of the land, the spy and surety of the others; so that every one is accountable to the state for those with whom he is in any way connected, and, in case of any offence, must suffer with them. Thus the father is accountable for his children,

In

the master for his servants, the neighbor for his neighbor, every society for its members. A crime is never punished by fine, but always by imprisonment and banishment, or loss of limb or life; and every punishment is inflicted with inexorable rigor on high and low. All military and civil officers, for example, are bound to slit their belly, when ordered to do so, in consequence of any crime. Such a death involves no disgrace, and hence the contempt of death among all classes of Japanese, who, in general, prefer death to ignominy. The original rulers of Japan were called mikaddo, from their progenitor. The high priest of Japan is still called dairi, which was the title of the Japanese emperors as long as they possessed spiritual and temporal powers united. Since the revolution, which deprived them of the secular power, in 1586, when YoriTomo was appointed supreme ruler of the nation, the high priest has lived at Meaco. Under the present reigning dynasty of the Djogouns, his authority has declined still more. He is in the custody of a governor, answerable to the secular emperor. order to make himself more sure of the descendant of the ancient rulers of Japan, the crafty policy of the secular emperor has transmuted the dairi into a holy personage, who is visible to no human eye, at least to no man who is not in attendance on him. Whenever the dairi, as is very rarely the case, wishes to enjoy the fresh air in his garden, or in the inner circle of his extensive and well fortified palace, a signa! is given for all to withdraw, before the bearers raise the holy prisoner on their shoulders. In this palace, where he was born, he lives and dies, without ever going out of its precincts; and not till long after his death is his name disclosed beyond them. He enjoys a rich income, consisting of merchandise and natural products, which the secular emperor increaser by considerable additions, and by the pro ceeds of the sale of titles of honor, which belong to the dairi, as a prerogative. Or ders are also issued in the name of the dairi. The secular emperor bears the title of cubo, and resides at Jeddo. Under him, the real, absolute sovereign of the empire, are the princes, who are responsible to him. He concèdes, however, the first rank to the dairi, accepts from him titles of honor, and rewards the distinction thus bestowed on him by considerable presents. Formerly, the cubo made an annual journey to Meaco, in token of respect to the dairi; by degrees, these visits became less frequent, and now, as a sub

stitute, presents an sent him by ambassalors. The cubo administers the government, with the assistance of a council of state, of six aged men. He derives his revenues, which consist merely of natural productions, from five imperial provinces, as they are called, and some cities, which are under his immediate jurisdiction; in addition to which, he receives presents from the territorial princes, who govern the provinces. Each of these princes possesses a hereditary sovereignty in his own province; he receives the revenue without giving an account to the emperor, and defrays the expenses of his court and his army, repairs the highways, and, in short, provides for all public expenditures; but, in token of his dependence, he is obliged to spend six months every year at the court at Jeddo, where his wives and children live in a kind of captivity, as hostages and pledges of his fidelity. The religion of the Japanese is of Hindoo origin: this is true of the older sect of the Siutos, as well as of the more modern one of Budso or Fo, which came from China. Besides these sects, there are others, more or less resembling them. The people worship a great number of inferior divinities, whose statues are placed in the temples of the great deities. The numerous clergy, and the monks and nuns, who live in a multitude of monasteries, are under the dairi. The Hindoo religion has nowhere been more disfigured by superstition and subsequent additions than in Japan. The Siuto or Confucius sect, a philosophical sect, resembles the sect of the learned in China, and despises the folly of the popular belief. The army of the Japanese consists, in time of peace, of 100,000 men, besides 20,000 horsemen, clad in armor; the infantry are protected only by helmets; their arms, bows, muskets, sabres and daggers, are excellent; they have very heavy cannon, but are even less skilful in the use of them than the Chinese. The single princes maintain, besides, 368,000 infantry and 33,000 cavalry. The navy is insignificant. The dairi formerly had large fleets, and large vessels of cedar; but now the Japanese vessels are small, at most 90 feet long, like the Chinese. In war, the Japanese display much courage, which is inflamed by martial songs and stories. The Japanese are well situated for commerce. Formerly their ships covered the neighboring seas; and before the arrival of the Europeans, they carried on a considerable trade, and an extensive navigation; they had, for example, visited the north-west coast of America, beyond Beer

ing's straits, farther than the European navigators; they visited China and the East Indies as far as Bengal. After it had begun to be feared that foreigners would overthrow the state, and pervert the morals of the natives, all foreign commerce and navigation were prohibited. Their silk and cotton cloths, their porcelain wares, and their lackered tin-ware, with raised flowers or figures (japanned ware), are well known, and in much demand as articles of commerce; their steel-work is excellent, especially their swords and other arms, the exportation of which is strictly forbidden. Respecting the history of Japan, see Thunberg's Travels (from the Swedish, London, 1795), and Kämpfer's History of Japan (translated from the manuscripts into English, London, 1728). Compare, also, Golownin's Narrative of his Imprisonment in Japan, 1811-13 (London, 1817), Abel Rémusat's Mémoires sur la Dynastie regnante des Djogouns, Souverains du Japon (Paris, 1820), which Titsingh, who was 14 years Dutch resident at Nangasacki, compiled from Japanese originals. The Elemens de lu Grammaire Japonaise (from the Portuguese manuscript of father Rodriguez, Nangasacki, 1604), traduits du Portug. par Landresse, expliqués par Ab. Rémusat (Paris, 1825), is preferable to the Japanese grammars of Alvarez and Collado.*

JAPANESE CYCLE AND ÆRA. (See Epoch, vol. iv, page 555.)

JAPANNING is the art of varnishing in colors. All substances that are dry and rigid, or not too flexible, as woods, metals, leather, and paper prepared, admit of be

*The follow the king of the papers in 1829:

notice appeared in the newsNetherlands in Japan, has transDoctor Siebold, the resident of mitted a work to the Asiatic Society of Paris, on the origin of the Japanese, &c., containing, in an abridged form, the result of his researches during published at the expense of the society, with notes the last four years. The doctor wishes it to be and a critical preface. He writes, also, that he has collected the largest library of books which he believes was ever formed in Japan; it consists of more than 1500 volumes. His zoological mubotanical collection about 2000 species, in upseum contains more than 3000 specimens, and his wards of 6000 specimens. Assisted by his col. league, doctor Burger, he has also formed a comHe has visited plete mineralogical collection. the most remarkable cities, determined their lateseveral mountains. tude and longitude, and measured the height of He has also established a botanical garden at Dezima, at the expense of the government of the Netherlands, in which there are now more than 1200 plants cultivated. The doctor has also presented to the king of France a collection of plants in domestic use in Japan which he considers to be well adapted or the cl mate of the south of France."

ing japanned. Wood and metals require no other preparation than to have their surfaces perfectly even and clean; but leather should be securely stretched, either on frames or on boards, as its bending would crack and force off the varnish. Paper should be treated in the same manner, and have a previous strong coat of size; but it is rarely japanned, till converted into papier maché, or wrought into such form that its flexibility is lost. The article to be japanned is first brushed over with two or three coats of seed lac varnish, to form the priming. It is then covered with varnish, previously mixed with a pigment of the tint desired. This is called the ground color; and, if the subject is to exhibit a design, the objects are painted upon it in colors mixed with varnish, and used in the same manner as for oil painting. The whole is then covered with additional coats of transparent varnish, and all that remains to be done is to dry and polish it. Japanning requires to be executed in warın apartments, and the articles are warmed before the varnish is applied to them. One coat of varnish also must be dry before another is laid on. Ovens are employed to hasten the drying of the work. The same pigments which are employed in oil or water answer also in varnish. For painting figures, shell lac varnish is considered best, and easiest to work; it is therefore employed, in most cases, where its color permits. For the lightest colors, mastich varnish is employed, unless the fineness of the work adinits the use of copal dissolved in alcohol. JAPHETH, a Hebrew word, signifying beautifully producing, is the name of the third son of Noah. His descendants, according to Genesis, x, 5, peopled the isles of the Gentiles. This is supposed to mean Southern Europe, and thus Japheth is considered the ancestor of the European race, and is believed to have been the same who is called by the Greeks Japetos. According to Herbelot's Bibliot. Orient., the Arabians give to Japheth 11 sons, who became founders of as many Asiatic tribes. JARED; a son of Mehalaleel's, the father of Enoch. He reached the age of 962 years, according to Genesis, v, 20.

JARL, in the early history of the northam European kingdoms; the lieutenants or governors, appointed by the kings over each province. At a later period, only one jarl was appointed in each kingdom, and the title of duke given him, as was the case in Sweden, for instance, in 1163. In Norway, after 1308, during the reign of Jacon VII, this dignity was conferred only

on the earls of Orkney and the princes of the blood. (See the articles Earl, and Al derman.)

JASMINE; a beautiful genus of plants belonging to the diandria monogynia of Linnæus. The corolla is funnel-shaped, and the fruit a two-seeded berry. Thirty species are known, which are shrubs, often with long, twining branches, bearing simple or compound leaves, and beautiful and delightfully fragrant flowers. Two species are natives of the south of Europe.

JASON; son of Æson, king of Iolchos, in Thessaly, and of Polymeda (according to some writers, of Polymete, Alcimede, Polypheme, &c.); a hero of ancient Greece, celebrated for his share in the Argonautic expedition, before which he had distinguished himself in the Caledonian hunt. His instructer was the Centaur Chiron, who educated most of the heroes of that time. His father abdicated the government of Iolchos before Jason was of full age; on which account his uncle Pelias administered the government as his guardian. The causes of Jason's expedition to Colchis are commonly related thus: Pelias, Jason's uncle, sent an invitation to all his relations, and, among the rest, to Jason, to attend a solemn sacrifice to Neptune. When Jason, on his way to Iolchos, came to the river Evenus (Enipeus, Anaurus), he found Juno there, in the form of an old woman, who requested him to carry her over. He complied with her request, but lost one of his shoes in the mud. Pelias, who had been warned by an oracle, that he should be deprived of his kingdom and life by the man who should come to the sacrifice without shoes, was alarmed at the sight of Jason in this condition, and asked him what he would do to the man designated by the oracle as his murderer. Jason, at the suggestion of Juno, replied, that he should send him to Colchis, after the golden fleece; and he was accordingly sent. Another account relates that Pelias had deprived his brother of his throne, and that Jason, when 20 years old, having asked the oracle how he could get possession of his lawful inheritance, was directed to go to the court of Pelias, at Iolchos, in the dress of a Magnesian, with a leopard's skin on his shoulders, and armed with two lances. On the way, Jason lost his shoe in the manner above related. All were surprised at his appear ance, and Pelias, who did not recognise him, demanded who he was. Jason answered boldly that he was the son of

son, caused himself to be shown the dwelling of his father, and spent five days

there with his relations, Pheres, Neleus, Admetus, Amythron, Acastus and Melampus, in celebrating his return. They then went together to Pelias, and demanded of him his abdication. Pelias dared not refuse, but answered that he would resign, after Jason had performed a glorious achievement by bringing back the golden fleece to Thessaly, as the oracle and the shade of Phryxus had commanded, since his age would not permit him to go himself. On the voyage (see Argonauts), Jason had two children by Hypsipyle of Lemnos-Euneus and Nebrophonus (Deipylus). By the assistance of Medea (q. v.), he successfully accomplished the object of his voyage, and returned, carrying home Medea as his wife, after long wanderings. Here he avenged the murder of his parents and his brother, by put ting Pelias to death. But he was unable to retain possession of the throne, and was obliged to resign it to Acastus, son of Pelias, and flee, with his wife, to Corinth. Here they passed 10 happy years, till Jason, wearied of Medea, fell in love with Clauce, (Creusa according to some accounts), daughter of Creon, king of Corinth, married her, and put away Medea and her children. Medea, having revenged herself on her hated rival, fled from the wrath of Jason, in her car drawn by dragons, to Egeus, king of Athens, after she had put to death Mermerus and Pheretus, her sons by Jason. According to some, Jason killed himself in despair; but others relate that, after passing a miserable, wandering life, he came to his death by the following accident: As he was sleeping one day, overcome by weariness, on the sea-shore, in the shade of the vessel which had borne him to Colchis, a beam fell upon him and crushed him. Others say that he was afterwards reconciled to Medea, and returned with her to Colchis, where, after the death of his father-in-law, he ruled many years in peace.

JASPER. (See Quartz.)

JASSY (Jash), capital of Moldavia, about 18 miles distant from the Pruth, 200 miles east of Oczakow, 370 north of Con tantinople, has a citadel, and is the residence of the hospodar and seat of the Greek metropolitan of Moldavia, with 25,000 inhabitants. The Roman Catholics are allowed the free exercise of their religion, and there are some Jews here. The city is an open place, and was almost destroyed by the janizaries Aug. 10, 1822: it now contains hardly 2000 houses. The streets are paved with logs. The excellent canvass made here, and the wine of Catana

pou, in the neighborhood, are exported from Jassy to Constantinople. This city was taken by the Russians, in 1739 and 1769, but each time restored to the Turks on the conclusion of peace. In 1788, it fell into the power of the Austrians; and, Jan. 9, 1792, the peace between Russia and Turkey was signed here. (See Russia.) In 1821, the unfortunate Àlexander Ypsilanti here raised the standard of the Greek Hetæria against the Turks. (See Hetaria, and Greece, Revolution of.)

JAUCOURT, Louis, chevalier de, one of the contributors to the French Encyclopédie, born 1704, at Paris, received the rudiments of his education in Geneva, passed three years at Cambridge, and studied medicine in Holland, under Boerhaave and Tronchin, but determined to practise it only for the benefit of the poor. On his return home, he devoted himself entirely to letters, and, at the instance of D'Alembert, he prepared the articles relating to medicine and natural philosophy for the Encyclopédie. He also contributed other articles, which are among the best in the work. Feeling his strength decline, he retired to Compiègne, where he died, 1779. Besides his treatises in the Encyclopédie, he published various works, some original and some translated, on medical subjects. The manuscript of a universal medical dictionary, which he had prepared, in six volumes, folio, was lost on its way to the publisher in Amsterdam, in a vessel that was shipwrecked on the coast of North Holland.

JAUNDICE is a disease of which the distinguishing peculiarity is, that the whole skin becomes yellow. It proceeds from some disease about the liver, or its communication with the bowels. The internal symptoms are those of all disorders of the digestive organs, except that the water is dark and loaded with bile, while the bowels appear to be deprived of it. The yellow color is first perceptible in the whiter parts of the body, as the white of the eye, &c., and soon overspreads the whole body. There is often an extreme itching and prickling over the whole skin. After the disease has continued long, the color of the skin becomes gradually deeper and darker, till the disease becomes, at last. what is vulgarly called the black jaundice. This appearance arises from the bile being retained, from various causes, in the Liver and gall-bladder, and thus being absorved and circulated with the blood. It may be produced by obstacles to the passage of the bile of various kinds, and is often suddenly induced by a violent fit of passion

or more slowly by long continuance of melancholy and painful emotions. It is a very common figure of speech to say, that "a person views a thing or a person with jaundiced eyes;" but this is founded in a mistake; for it is not true, that jaundice communicates such a color to the transparent part of the eye, as to affect the color of objects. The above phrase is therefore inappropriate.

JAVA; a large island in the Eastern seas, situated between 60 and 9° of S. lat., and hetween 105° and 115° of E. lon. from Greenwich. It extends from east to west, and is 642 miles in length, its greatest breadth 128 miles, and its average breadth 95. To the south and west, its shores are washed by the Southern Indian ocean; to the north-west lies the island of Sumatra, from which Java is separated by a strait, 20 miles wide in the narrowest part, known by the name of the Straits of Sunda; to the north is Borneo; to the north-east, Celebes; and, on the east, the islands of Bali and Madura, from the former of which it is separated by a narrow passage, called the Straits of Bali. The island is divided nearly in its whole length by a range of mountains, running almost east and west, and rising to their greatest elevation towards the centre; but the range is much broken. In several hills of the great range of mountains are the craters of volcanoes, which formerly raged with fury, and poured forth torrents of lava; but, at present, none are known to be in activity, though many emit smoke after heavy rain. The most considerable rivers are the Joana, and the Sedani, or Tangerang. On the bank or bar before Batavia, the flood rises about six feet, and higher at spring tides. High and low water likewise occur only once in 24 hours. The island is traversed from east to west by a great military road, 700 miles in extent, constructed by general Daendels, a governor of the island, before it was taken by the English. The year, as is usual in tropical climates, is divided into the dry and the rainy seasons; or into the east, which is called the good monsoon, and the west, or the bad monsoon. Thunder storms are very frequent, especially towards the conclusion of the monsoons, when they occur almost every evening. l'he heat of the climate is various. Along the sea-coast, it is hot and sultry. At Batavia, from July to November, the thermometer generally stands, in the hottest part of the day, between 840 and 90°, which it rarely exceeds; and, in the greatest degree of

coolness in the morning, it is seldom lower than 76°. In some parts, particularly among the hills, and in many of the inland towrs, it is often so cold as to make a fire desirable. Java possesses a soil of extraordinary luxuriance and fertility. In the forests, especially in those on the northeast coast, is found an abundance of lofty trees, fit to be converted into masts, while forests of teak supply the place of oak for building ships, adapted to all purposes. Palms and cocoa-trees are found in great variety, and are distinguished by their luxuriant growth, sometimes reaching to the astonishing height of 150 feet. Fruits of all kinds are also abundant, many of them of exquisite delicacy and flavor In the high ground in the interior, they are found to dwindle and degenerate, in that equinoctial climate. The various kinds of plants and great abundance of herbs found in Java, would afford ample scope for the researches of the botanist, as flowers exhale their perfumes at all seasons of the year. Garden-plants are produced in great variety, such as endives, cauliflowers, beans, cabbages, pompions, melons, patacas or water-melons, yams, potatoes, &c. Maize, or Indian corn, is a favorite article of food with the natives, who eat it roasted. The natural fertility of the soil of Java supersedes the necessity of laborious tillage. The staple produce of the island is rice. Sugar, to the amount of 10,000,000 of pounds annually, is also made. Pepper is produced in great abun dance and perfection; also indigo of a very superior quality. Cotton is cultivated in almost every part of the island; and the coffee plantations are extremely luxuriant. The soil is also very favorable to the growth of tobacco. There are many other herbs and plants, both medicinal and balsamic, that are but imperfectly known to Europeans. Wheat and barley are only grown in small quantities, on the hilly tracts, chiefly in the middle parts of the island. Oats and Bengal grain thrive likewise in those parts of the island, and would be produced in great abundance, were due attention given to their culture. The domestic animals in Java are buffaloes, and cattle of every description, and sheep, goats and pigs. Game, however, does not abound here so much as in other countries, though hares and rabbits are pretty common; and deer and antelopes are also plentiful. The horses, which are very numerous throughout the island, are small, but active. Wild hogs and monkeys are found in all the jungles. The forests abound with tigers. as powerful and as large as in Bengal. A