tion was European, and his elegant home at Ferney was a sort of shrine towards which literary devotees from all countries turned their steps. [See Pope and Swift: Friends.] II. Germany. - House of Austria: LEOPOLD I., -1705. Joseph I., 1705-1711. CHARLES VI., 1711-1742. CHARLES VII., 1742-1745. Commencement of the Prussia, 1701. erick I., 1701 1713. Supremacy of French Influence.-This age is one of transition between the sterile seventeenth century Kingdom of and the reform period of Lessing, Klopstock, Wieland, and Herder. Germany had now recovered somewhat from the effects of the Thirty Years' War, religious controversy had abated, and the minds of men were free to occupy themselves with literary Reign of Fredpursuits. New literary societies were formed-the school of Leipzig by Gottsched, the school of Zürich by Bodmer, the Prussian school by Gleim, the Berlin school by Ramler, and numerous others all over the Empire, which greatly served to promote mental culture and encourage national genius. But all models for composition were taken exclusively from the duced into GerFrench, till a great literary struggle arose between the schools of Leipzig and Zürich, which paved the way for the reformation under Lessing and the overthrow of French influence. English influence intro many. The works of Pope, Young, Thomson, Richardson, etc., were translated and imitated by German writ ers. Handel (1684 1759), the illusmusical comspent most of his life in England. trious German poser, who The Swiss-Leipzig Controversy. Gottsched and Bodmer.-Johann Gottsched (1700-1762) began his work as a critic by opposing the affectation of the second Silesian school, and, having accomplished this worthy task, proceeded to construct a new poetic creed, in which three propositions were maintained: "That poetry must be founded on an imitation of nature; that the understanding must prevail over the imagination; and that the best models must be found in French literature." On the other hand, Bodmer (1698-1783) was a great admirer of the English style of literature, and had translated the "Paradise Lost" into German. This difference of opinion at length led to results, and in 1740 the warfare 1751), the dis Wolf (1679 ciple of Leib nitz, wrote an extensive series of philosophical works, in which he up held the Indi vidualistic master. He was an indefati began with Bodmer's defence of Milton against the charges of Gottsched. For a long time Gottsched and his party at Leipzig prevailed, but at length public opinion, enraged at his adverse criticism of Idealism of his Klopstock, turned against him, and he lived to be a laughing-stock of Germany. Prominent among the followers of Bodmer were Gärtner, Gellert, Lichtwer, and Kleist. Many of the opinions of the victorious school were erroneous, and the importance of the controversy consists only in the impulse it afforded to poetical literature, and as the cradle of the great intellects of the succeeding age who were to bring about a true and thorough reform. gable analyzer. In his manuals, as well as in his lectures, delivered at the University of Halle, on philosophy and mathematics, he employed the German language. INNOCENT XIII., 1721-1724. CLEMENT XII., 1730-1740. BENEDICT III. Italy.-CLEMENT XI., 1700-1721. Gravina-a celebrated patron of letters. Marquis Scipio Maffei was the first to employ, in his tragedy of "Mérope," the plot which was afterwards ren Creation of the Modern Italian Opera by Metastasio. -Metastasio (1698-1782), who may be said to have created modern Italian opera, was the son of a common soldier. His extraordinary talents of extemporizing in verse at the early age of ten years attracted the notice of Gravina, who adopted him, paid great attention to his education, and at his death, in 1717, left him his estate. Having wasted this fortune, Metastasio studied law for a time at Naples, but a drama produced there under pledge of secrecy being traced to him, he suddenly found himself famous, and was received into the house of the celebrated prima donna, Bulgarelli, who directed his attention to music, and under whose guidance he composed his first operas. In 1729 he was appointed court poet of Vienna, where he resided for half a century in the enjoyment of ease, luxury, and the royal favor. Metastasio wrote twenty-eight grand operas, eight sacred dramas, cantatas, canzonets, and a quantity of ballet. His operas, like those of other Italian writers, are characterized by exaggeration and a certain similitude of plot in which dered famous in the dramas of Voltaire and Alfieri. Maf fei's "Mérope" has been called the last and best specimen of the elder the inevitable dagger constitutes the mainspring of the action. As a writer he is distinguished by purity, pathos, accuracy, elevated sentiment, and a pleasing and harmonious diction. Metastasio's works are very popular with all classes of his countrymen— their pure classicism delighting and instructing the school of Itallearned, while their exquisite melody and simplicity of diction attract the admiration of less scholarly readers. ian tragedy. Reformation of the Italian Stage under Goldoni.— The eighteenth century was the golden age of the Italian stage. Previous to this the drama was weak and extravagant, but under Goldoni (1707-1793) it became real and substantial. He was the true founder of modern Italian comedy. "I have read over again," he says in his "Mémoires, ""the Greek and Latin poets, and I have told to myself that I should like to imitate them in their style, their plots, their precision; but I would not be satisfied unless I succeeded in giving more interest to my works, happier issues to my plots, better drawn characters, and more genuine comedy." His comedies depict Turandot" in a very natural manner the Venetian society of his age. The last years of Goldoni's life were passed in France, where he composed, for the wedding of Louis XVI. and of Marie Antoinette, one of his finest pieces, "Le Bourrn Bienfaisant," pronounced by Voltaire to be the best comedy since the time of Molière. IV. Spain.-PHILIP V., 1700-1746. Introduction of French Taste under the Bourbons.— The literary decline begun in the preceding age was greatly accelerated by the introduction of French taste consequent upon the accession of the Bourbons to the throne. Spanish poets imitated the so-called French school, and by thus adopting unworthy models became themselves more degenerated. All national literature was despised, and subjected to a Gozzi (17181806), the rival of Goldoni, dramatized light tales. His is the source of the "Bluebeard" of the English stage. War of the Spanish Succession closed in 1713 with the treaty of Utrecht, by which Spain lost nearly onehalf of her European possessions. neglect from which it has never fully recovered. However, it was during the reign of Philip V. that the Spanish Academy was established, which produced as one of its earliest works a Spanish dictionary-the standard of the language up to the present day. BOOKS OF REFERENCE. J. H. Burton's "The Reign of Queen | Sir Archibald Alison's "Life of J. Anne." Churchill, Duke of Marlborough." Van Laun's "History of French Literature." James Parton's "Life of Voltaire" (1881). "Memoirs of Carlo Goldoni," with an Burney's "Life of Metastasio, and Ticknor's “ 'History of Spanish Lit- |