There already existed a popular club in the town, which filled the place with terror; but Carrier, who presented himself before this club with his sword drawn, and uttering coarse imprecations, soon found it too lenient, and dissolved it. He employed troops of ruffians to visit the country round, where they plundered the houses of the royalists, whom they swept away in multitudes, and committed all sorts of atrocities. He formed a revolutionary tribunal for the hasty trial of the prisoners, by which the Vendeans were condemned to be shot, and the people of Nantes, accused of royalism, to be guillotined. Great numbers of children of the Vendean insurgents had found protection among the families in Nantes, and this inhuman monster caused them all to be imprisoned; and it is said, that, by his orders, no less than 500 children, under fourteen years of age, of both sexes, were, with musketry and grape, shot in one day. On another occasion, nearly a hundred women were similarly destroyed; and their naked bodies, left decomposing in the air, produced disease amongst the living. Carrier soon hit on a still more rapid mode of extermination. The river Loire runs through Nantes; and on it he embarked, under pretence of transporting them, seventy priests in a boat, which was sunk at a short. distance from town. This drowning process saved so much time and trouble, that it was repeated many times on a still grander scale. Men, armed with axes and sabres, were stationed round to kill all who might escape by swimming. The new invention was soon improved upon, and boats were made for the purpose, which were placed in the middle of the river. The prisoners were conducted to them in a barge, and were forced into the holds of these boats, some of them tied two-andtwo together. When the boats were thus filled, planks were nailed down over the entrance, and the boats then immediately scuttled and sunk. In this manner hardly less than 5,000 individuals, of all ages and both sexes, perished. The poor victims met with the most indecent treatment. Sometimes a party of the prisoners, consisting of men and women of different ages, belonging to the most respectable families in Nantes, were stripped quite naked, tied together in couples-a male with a female-and, after being exposed for some time in this manner to the insults of the mob, thrown into the river and drowned. These horrible exhibitions were called, in joke, republican marriages.

In

In times of intense excitement such as those of which we write, the popular mania is sure, in some minds, to take a religious turn. With the women of the revolution, the name of Robespierre was an object of adoration. Amongst them a religious sect had arisen, who had for their leader an old woman named Catherine Théot, whose mind had become deranged by a long imprisonment in the Bastille she believed herself to be the mother of God; and announced the approaching advent of the Messiah. This event was to be prepared by two prophets, one of whom was an ecclesiastic, named Gerle, as mad as herself; and the other was Robespierre, who was talked of, in her circle, as the favourite child of the mother of God. Out of these absurdities grew an ill-feeling towards Robespierre, which in time was to undermine his power. Already individuals had attempted, towards Robespierre, to do what Charlotte Cordey had done to Marat. În May, two attempts had been made upon his life. Robespierre's vanity in consequence became inordinate; and, as we might expect, the jealousy of his colleagues was aroused. As president at the celebration of the festival of the Supreme Being, on the 8th of June, his elation was beyond belief. When, at length, he presented himself, he was dressed with extraordinary care: his head was covered with flowing feathers, and his sallow countenance lit up with unusual joy. An amphitheatre had been formed in the garden of the Tuileries, which was occupied by the convention: to the right and left of which, were groups representing the different ages and sexes of the people; and, in front, were raised three large images, representing Atheism, Discord, and Egotism. The ceremony opened with music; and then Robespierre, as president, made a short address on the object of the festival: at the close of which he seized a torch, and set fire to the three figures in front of the amphitheatre. As Atheism, Discord, and Egotism

dropped into ashes, the statue of Wisdom appeared standing out of the flames; but it was remarked that it was all black with smoke. Robespierre returned to his place, and pronounced a second discourse on the vices which were in league against the republic. The convention and the populace then went in procession to the Champ de Mars; and, in their progress, Robespierre's pride seems entirely to have got the mastery over him. He walked in advance of his colleagues; and, to their intense indignation, gave himself airs of superior importance. Next day the Committee of Public Safety presented rather a violent scene. Robespierre complained bitterly of the treatment he had received, and demanded speedier justice -in reality, more blood. To show the increased activity of "justice" at this period, it may be mentioned, that, from the commencement of the tribunal in March, 1793, to the month of June, 1794-that is, during about fifteen monthsit had condemned 577 individuals; while only during six weeks, forming the second period-that is, from the 10th of June to the 27th of July, 1794—1,285 victims were sent to the guillotine. It was now a struggle of life between Robespierre and his foes. It was felt, that if they could not crush him, he could and would crush them.

At length the storm burst. Men had leagued together against the intolerable terror of Robespierre's power. Towards the end of July, he and his doings had been, in the convention, the subject of unusually fierce debate. The night of the 26th of July passed in plot and counter-plot. On the morrow every one felt that the decisive hour had arrived. In vain Robespierre essayed to speak. Cries of "Down with the tyrant!-down with the tyrant!" resounded on all sides of the hall. Tallien, amidst tumultuous applause, exhibited the poniard with which he was prepared to take Robespierre's life, if the convention lacked the courage to decree his accusation. After many exciting harangues the motion for his accusation was carried. Robespierre had, during this time, moved backward and forward between his place and the tribune; but now he again approached the president, and demanded a hearing. He looked first to the Mountain for sympathy; but, finding none there, turned to the Plain, and appealed to them. "It is to you," he said, "men of purity and virtue, that I appeal; and not to brigands." But all was in vain; and, turning again to the president, he exclaimed-" For the last time, president of assassins, I demand a hearing." His voice became thick, and almost stifled with rage. "It is the blood of Danton which is choking you," cried one deputy. Said another-" President, is that man much longer to be master of the assembly ?" "Ah!" cried another, "how hard a tyrant is to throw down." Exclamations of "Vote! vote!" were now heard; and, in the midst of a great tumult, the arrest of Robespierre was decreed amidst shouts of "Vive la Liberté !" "Vive la République !" "The tyrants are no more!" A second decree ordered the arrest of St. Just and Couthon, and Lebas and Robespierre the younger were added, of their own accord. The scene was altogether so new and extraordinary, and the terror inspired by the triumvirs was still so great, that none of the officers of the convention dared approach them, to lead them to the bar; and it was only after repeated calls from the assembly that the five accused persons left their seats to proceed thither, from whence they were conducted to the committees, to undergo an examination prior to their being sent to prison. Robespierre was absolutely furious; but St. Just retained his ordinary look of calmness and disdain. The others were dejected, as they anticipated their speedy doom. The convention, overcome with fatigue, adjourned their sittings. Meanwhile, out of doors an armed insurrection raged; and when the convention assembled an hour or two afterwards, they found that their prisoners had been rescued, and carried in triumph to the mayoralty; and that they themselves were being rapidly put in a state of siege. Collet d'Herbois immediately placed himself in the presidential chair, which, by its position in the hall, must have been struck with the first discharge of artillery, and said—" Representatives, now is the moment to die at our posts." Immediately the deputies took their seats; and at length,

convinced that they were on the point of being massacred, passed a decree of outlawry against Herriot. This decree was directly placed outside the walls of the convention, where Herriot was at that moment endeavouring to persuade the cannoniers to fire. The deputies shouted-"Cannoniers! will you obey that brigand?-that man is an outlaw." The effect of this announcement was instantaneous; the cannoniers refused to fire, and the convention was saved.

Inspirited by success, the convention now assumed the offensive. Robespierre and his friends were at the Hôtel-de-Ville: thither the troops repaired. Despair seized on the inmates: Lebas drew out a pistol, and shot himself; the younger Robespierre jumped out of the window; St. Just alone remained calm. Robespierre, after some hesitation, summoned up courage to shoot himself; but, in his agitation, he only inflicted a wound on his cheek. The soldiers now broke open the door, and arrested the prisoners, who were ultimately conveyed to the hall of the Committee of Public Safety, where Robespierre was laid upon a table, dressed in the same blue coat which he had worn at the feast of the Supreme Being, with nankeen breeches and white stockings, the latter of which, in the confusion, having fallen, reached his heels. He remained in this condition unmoved, the blood flowing down his cheek. A surgeon was sent for; Robespierre was placed in a chair, and remained unmoved while his wound was dressed. He was afterwards conveyed, with his companions, to the Conciergerie. As they had all been outlawed by the convention, there was no necessity for subjecting them to a trial. The next morning they were brought before the revolutionary tribunal, merely to establish their identity; and were carried to execution the same afternoon. An immense crowd followed them, shouting dreadful exclamations, and manifesting the utmost joy at their downfall. Robespierre remained sullen and unmoved to the last.

All over France a change came sudden as the lightning's flash. The prison doors were burst; fear gave place to hope, and mourning to joy. From garrets and cellars where they had long lain hidden, men came forth, as the world's grey fathers might have done after the Deluge had passed away. For two or three days the convention was occupied, almost entirely, with addresses of congratulation on their triumph, which, it was said, had saved the republic. The revolutionary tribunal was suspended. Decrees of accusation were passed against Fouquier Tinville, the iniquitous public accuser; Lebon, one of the most sanguinary of the commissioners sent into the provinces under the influence of Robespierre; David; Héron, the chief of Robespierre's police; General Rossignol, and Hermann, another of Robespierre's tyrannical agents. These proceedings gave more confidence to the public. The work of restoration and reorganisation went on apace. The danger of leaving the whole power of the state in the hands of one committee was now generally felt and the government was entrusted to sixteen separate and independent committees. These were-1. The Committee of Public Safety. 2. The Committee of General Surety. 3. The Committee of Finances. 4. The Committee of Legislation. 5. The Committee of Public Instruction. 6. The Committee of Agriculture and the Arts. 7. The Committee of Commerce and Victualling. 8. The Committee of Public Works. 9. The Committee of Transport by Post. 10. The Military Committee. 11. The Committee of the Marine and Colonies. 12. The Committee of Public Relief. 13. The Committee of Division. 14. The Committee of Procés Verbaux and Archives. 15. The Committee of Petitions, Correspondence, and Despatches. 16. The Committee of Inspectors of the National Palaces.

Of these, the Committee of Public Safety was composed of twelve members, and was charged with the superior direction of the military operations and diplomatic relations. The Committee of Public Surety, consisting of sixteen members, had the direction of the police. The functions of the other committees are sufficiently indicated by their names. Numerous changes were also made in all the subordinate departments of the public service. The number of revolutionary committees which had been distributed over the whole country, was greatly diminished; the powers

of those which remained were placed under limits, and their more violent members expelled. The assemblies of the sections in Paris were only allowed to be held once every décadi; and the practice of paying the lower orders for their attendance was abolished. All the municipalities and local bodies were, like the revolutionary committees, purged of the agents and partisans of the reign of terror. The revolutionary tribunal was restored to its functions, but in a much milder form, and under the direction of men who were not likely to abuse its powers. Finally, the liberty of the press was decreed.

Once more, also, in Paris began the reign of the salon. People lived no longer in solitude-dirty, suspicious, repulsive, and ill-dressed. It was not now considered high treason to be a gentleman, to wear a clean shirt, and be pleasant to one's neighbour. The parties given by Madame Tallien were the most splendid and the most frequented; and she did all that a woman could do to soften down the harshness of revolutionary manners. In many fashionable réunions, the young man who had signalised himself by his exploits against the Jacobins, was sure to be marked out for special favour. Towards the end of November the club of the Jacobins was suppressed. Some of its members joined the electoral club which had been driven from the Evéché; but the greater part, and the more violent, took refuge among the ultra-revolutionists of the Faubourg St. Antoine, where they continued to hold seditious meetings; to which the committees of the government, feeling their own strength, thought it most dignified to pay no regard. The sections of Paris, taking courage from the overthrow of the great popular club, and expelling from their ranks the declared Jacobins who still remained with them, sent congratulatory addresses to the assembly. Meanwhile the clamour for punishment against the terrorists increased, and it was found impossible to resist it. Among those who were especially marked out for vengeance by the public voice, were Lebon and David; Maignet, who had barbarously treated the town of Bédouin; Fouquier Tinville; Bouchotte, the exminister of war; and the three revolutionary chiefs, Billaud Varennes, Collet d'Herbois, and Barrère. These three latter were at length placed under accusation; and the infamous Carrier made some atonement to society for his misdeeds, by perishing, with his accomplices, on the guillotine.

Whilst these events were taking place, the armies of France had been remarkably successful. The defeat of the Prince of Coburg by Jourdain, and the capture of Ypres and Charleroi, had placed Belgium at the mercy of the French. Pichegru had driven back the Duke of York; and the flag of the republic was at length extended to the Rhine. On the frontier of the Alps, a plan had been proposed by General Bonaparte, and adopted, for recruiting the two armies of the Alps and Italy for the invasion of Piedmont; but the design was delayed by the events which led to the fall of Robespierre, In Holland the French were received with open arms; and our allies, such as Prussia, were already weary of the contest, and willing to make peace. In one corner of France the Bretons still struggled for the ancient constitution, the old laws, and the royal family of France. Assisted by England, hitherto the republic had been unable to crush them. In 1795 they were compelled to succumb. In the middle of June in that year, it was attempted, by the French royalists in England, to assist the Chouans, and take possession of the peninsula of Quiberon, which would serve them as a strong position from whence to threaten St. Malo, Brest, or L'Orient. Valuable time was lost; while the Bretons showed far less disposition to take up arms than was expected. Hoche displayed the utmost activity in his preparations for resistance. The attempt was a failure. If it had not been for the English fleet, under Admiral Warren, all would have perished: and thus ended this unfortunate expedition, which, perhaps, might have been successful had the royalists been united, and had one of the princes of the blood the courage to place

himself at its head.

Insurrections still continued in Paris. As a defender of order, Bonaparte

appears upon the scene. A certain number of the sections, with that of Lepelletier at their head, proclaimed themselves in a state of insurrection, and called the citizens to arms. The defence of the convention was entrusted to Barras, who chose for his second in command the young Napoleon, who was then in Paris. His arrangements were skilfully made. Hostilities began on the side of the Rue St. Honore, which was at that time filled with the insurgents. They had taken possession of the steps of the church of St. Roch, when Bonaparte advanced his cannons, and soon dislodged them with grapeshot. In like manner he speedily cleared the Rue St. Honore. In a little while the assailants were beaten from the other posts. After a desperate struggle the tranquillity of the capital was entirely restored; and as the sections submitted without further resistance, the victorious party acted with great leniency. Barras was made commander-in-chief of the army of the interior, with Bonaparte for his second in command.

In October, 1795, the celebrated national convention of republican France ceased. It celebrated its last sitting by abolishing the punishment of death in the French republic. This was followed by a decree of general amnesty of political offenders: and then the Directory was formed. One of the first things done by the new government was the establishment of a military force, for its own protection and that of the legislative bodies, which was organised under the direction of Bonaparte, and which was sufficient to prevent a repetition of the popular tumults which had so often disturbed the peace of the capital.

CHAPTER III.

IRELAND.

LET us now return to English affairs. The condition of England was at this time peculiarly critical. Some of her allies had joined the enemy, and the others had proved unequal to resist him. In India, the most powerful of the native princes were preparing to subvert her authority; and England herself contained a strong party, who saw in the French revolution, in spite of its excesses, a gain for the freedom of humanity, and who were not slow to express their opinions. In these times all men think so. At that time, when the land was ruled by ignorant Tory squires, and church-and-king mobs paraded the country, it was a matter of some peril, and certainly ensured worldly loss, to be of such a way of thinking.

Ireland then, as now, was England's weak point. That island was in a state of revolt; and certainly had every reason to be so. Man was not made for political institutions, but political institutions were made for man; and, in Ireland, the political and religious institutions of the governing few were cordially abhorred by the governed many. It was right such should be the case. When man ceases to protest against wrong, his manhood has passed away, and he is a slave. Well has one of Scotland's purest poets written

""Tis manhood makes the man

A high-souled freeman or a fettered slave;
The mind a temple fit for God to span,
Or a dark dungeon grave."

We must go back a few years. In 1777, Britain was engaged in the American war. Despotic France, entering into alliance with America, sent her soldiers to fight the battle of republicanism. England, in want of troops, withdrew her garrisons from Ireland, in order to transport them over the Atlantic. Ireland then was left defenceless in case of a French invasion. England gave her to understand