Poland and Finland, six universities; at Dorpat, St. Petersburgh, Moscow, Charkow, Kasan, and Kiew, containing 2,307 students, and 468 teachers. There were three Lyceums, at Moscow, Odessa, and Kiew, containing 452 scholars, and 80 teachers; 68 gymnasiums, attended by 16,506 scholars; 426 district schools; 884 parochial schools, and 508 private boarding schools. The whole number of scholars, according to the return of the minister of public instruction in 1839, was 244,993. This is but a small sprinkling of education for so vast an empire. In the kingdom of Poland, the number of scholars was 70,000, at 1159 institutes. This is exclusive of 3,368 Jewish schools. At the universities, lectures have been instituted for handicraft tradesmen, embracing mechanics, chemistry, physics, technology, and metallurgy, which are attended with a useful effect.

The principal products of Russian industry, connected with the foreign trade, are the following: The most important exports are hemp, flax, sailcloth and cordage; tallow, of which the yearly value exported is from eight to ten millions of dollars; wool, of which in 1838, 12,985,416 lbs. were exported, valued at $2,750,000; timber to the value of $2,000,000 per annum, of which half goes to England; potash, of the annual value of 650,000; and iron, of which 200,000 tons are manufactured annually, and a large amount exported. Manufacturing skill is advancing considerably, and the number of manufacturing establishments, particularly in iron works, woollen manufactures, leather-dressing, and candle-making, is increasing, but not with great rapidity.

The internal trade is carried on by means of fairs, of which the principal are Nishni-Novgorod, Korennaja, Irbit, &c., where goods to a large amount are sold every year. Each government has its bank, the united business of which amounted in 1836 to $25,000,000. From 1835 to 1838, 23 trading companies were formed, with capitals amounting to $7,000,000.

The imports, according to the official tables, were in value in 1836, $49,801,000; in 1837, 52,867,000; in 1838, 52,017,000. The exports in 1836, amounted in value to 59,582,000; in 1837, to $55,540,000; and in 1838, to $65,836,000. Of these imports and exports, from 1-16th to 1-12th part was transported by land, and the rest by sea. The trade with ports of Poland and Finland constituted a small part of the above amount, the greater part consisting of trade with foreign countries. Half the exports by sea went through St. Petersburgh, one-fifth through Riga, one-tenth through Odessa, and one-twentieth each through Archangel and Taganrok. Threefourths of the imports are made at St. Petersburgh, the residue being chiefly at Riga, Odessa, and Taganrok. In 1839, [see Jan. No. of

Chron., p. 4,] the amount of exports, and the excess over imports, was considerably further increased, with a favorable effect upon the paper currency, independently of a large importation of coin and bullion.

The army of Russia, as organized by the ukase of Aug. 9, 1835, consists of six corps d'armee, each of which is composed of three divisions of infantry, each division consisting of two brigades, each brigade of two regiments, and each regiment of six battalions, of 1000 men each. Four battalions take the field, and two remain as a reserve. So that each regiment is 4,000, and each corps 48,000 strong, exclusive of the reserve. To each corps is also attached one division of light-horse, and a division of artillery. The division of light-horse consists of a brigade of hussars, and a brigade of huhlans, each brigade consisting of two regiments, and each regiment of nine squadrons of 160 horses each, eight of which take the field, and one remains in reserve. Thus each regiment consists of 1,280 horses in the field, and each division of 5,120 horses. The division of artillery consists of three brigades, with four batteries each of eight guns, and one brigade of horse-artillery, one reserved battery, one park of artillery, and three sapper battalions, making together 6,000 men. Each corps d'armee, therefore, consists of 59,120 men, 5,120 horses, and 120 pieces of artillery; and the aggregate of the six corps numbers 354,720 men, 30,720 horses, and 720 pieces of artillery. There is besides, the corps of guards, consisting of three divisions of infantry, three of cavalry, and one of artillery, with 120 guns; and also the grenadier corps, equal in strength to an infantry corps, making together 114,000 men, and 240 guns. There are also two reserved corps of cavalry, each of two divisions, huhlans and cuirassiers, each division containing two brigades of two regiments each, with two brigades of horse-artillery, and a dragoon corps, in two brigades of two regiments each, and one brigade of horse-artillery. This cavalry corps embraces 30,000 men, and the same number of horses. In addition to these corps, there are two independent corps of the Caucasus, and Siberia, the first of which is equal to a whole corps, and the other to half a corps. This makes the whole number of men composing the army, in time of peace, 589,550, exclusive of the reserve not called into the field.

The navy consists of 48 ships of the line, of 110 to 74 guns; 39 frigates of 60 to 44 guns; 34 corvettes and brigs of 28 to 10 guns; and 15 war steamers, besides cutters, schooners, brigantines, and luggers, floating batteries, and gun-boats, mounting in all 7500 guns. This statement differs slightly from that in our geographical statement at the beginning of the volume, probably from being taken at a different date.

The annual revenue of Russia is about 355,000,000 roubles in

paper, which at 21 cents the rouble is equal to nearly $75,000,000. In some years it amounts to 400,000,000 of roubles. The public revenue of Russia would suffer a serious diminution, should the principle of total abstinence be introduced into the country. The most productive branch of revenue is the farming of the brandy trade. In 1838 the royal distillery was leased for four years, at the sum of 141,000,000 roubles, or $29,610,000 per annum. The two great items of public charge are the army, $40,500,000, and the navy, $8,350,000. The public debt of Russia is very incorrectly stated, by some accidental error, at page 4. The capital of the public debt is 934,000,000 roubles in paper, which is equal to $196,140,000. In ordinary years, a considerable reduction is effected in the public debt, and its present amount is probably something less than that above stated.

Within a few years, the government has done much for the introduction of manufactures, and something for internal improvements, by high duties on foreign imports, by special rewards, and by the establishment of companies with liberal privileges. The celebrated Mr. Cockerill was induced to establish a cotton manufactory at Moscow, and another at Warsaw. German artisans have been encouraged to settle among the Cossacks on the Don and Wolga. The nobles have recently embarked to a considerable extent in manufactures. Some of them have succeeded by this means in wiping off heavy incumbrances on their estates. The serfs are converted into workmen and machines. In 1838 there was a slight abatement of the amount of custom duties, but at the same time severe measures were adopted for the prevention of smuggling, and the import duties are still high, so that, as above stated, the exports far exceed the imports.

Works for the improvement of the means of communication have been encouraged by the government. The Seima river has been rendered navigable for a distance of 200 versts, or about 130 iniles; the navigation of the Dnieper has been improved, as well as various canals. A railway, from St. Petersburgh to Czarskoe-zelo was undertaken in 1836, chiefly by an English company, under a charter from the emperor, with very liberal privileges, and the gratuitous grant of land and timber for its construction. This railway was completed in 1837, and in the following year was extended to Paulowsk. A number of railroads have been projected in Russia, but we do not learn that, with the exception of the above, they have made much progress. A commission was appointed to examine a projected railroad from St. Petersburgh to Moscow. It was also proposed to construct one from Nishni-Novgorod to Orenburg, to facilitate the Asiatic trade. These, and other works of a like kind, will probably be accomplished in a few years. All the machinery for railroads is imported from England.

ARTICLE XIV.

ANTARCTIC DISCOVERIES.

In a former number, [Mon. Chron. vol. I. p. 210,] we gave a brief history of discoveries in the Antarctic Seas, including the interesting discoveries of the French and American exploring squadrons within the polar circle, in the beginning of last year, illustrated by a map exhibiting the tracks of the principal navigators in those seas. To this notice of these discoveries we subsequently added the narrative of Captain Wilkes, [Mon. Chron. vol. I. p. 287.] We have now to add a narrative of the still later discoveries of Captains Ross and Crozier, in the British discovery ships Erebus and Terror. These ships sailed from England subsequently to the date of the French and American discoveries, but before the news of either had reached that country, partly for the purpose of exploring the Antarctic regions, and ascertaining the true position of the south magnetic pole, and partly for the purpose of establishing observatories, and obtaining a series of magnetic observations at various stations along the route. They stopped at Madeira, St. Helena, the Cape of Good Hope, Kerguelen's Island, and Hobartstown, in Van Dieman's Land, at each of which places they established observatories, and placed them under the charge of suitable observers for the purpose in view. On their arrival they must have received information of the discoveries of Captains D'Urville and Wilkes, made a few months before.

About the 1st of November, 1840, they left Hobartstown for the prosecution of their polar voyage, directing their course first to Auckland Islands. From this point, which lies eastwardly of the regions traversed by Captain Wilkes, they proceeded southwardly until they had penetrated within the polar circle several degrees of latitude farther than any preceding navigator, and to a point not more than 160 miles distant from the magnetic pole. A narrative of this voyage is given in the following letter from Captain Ross, which is published in the London Nautical Magazine for September.

Extract of a Letter from Capt. Ross, of H. M. S. Erebus, dated at Hobartstown, Van Dieman's Land, 7th April, 1841. ( "Under all circumstances, it appeared to me that it would conduce more to the advancement of that branch of science, for which this expedition has been more specially sent forth, as well as for the extension of our geographical knowledge of the Antarctic Regions, to endeavor to penetrate to the southward, on about the 170th degree of east

longitude, by which the isodynamic oval, and the point exactly between the two foci of greater magnetic intensity might be passed over and determined, and directly between the tracks of the Russian navigator, Bellingshausen, and our own Captain James Cook; and after entering the Antarctic circle, to steer southwesterly towards the pole, rather than attempt to approach it directly from the north on the unsuccessful footsteps of my predecessor.

"Accordingly on leaving Auckland Islands, on the 12th of December, we proceeded to the southward, touching for a few days at Campbell Island, for magnetic purposes; and after passing amongst many icebergs to the southward of 63 deg. S. latitude, we made the pack-edge, and entered the Antarctic circle on the 1st of January, 1841.

"This pack presented none of those formidable characters which I had been led to expect from the accounts of the American and French; but the circumstances were sufficiently unfavorable to deter me from entering it at this time, and a gale from the northward interrupted our operations for three or four days.

"On the 5th of January, we again made the pack about 100 miles to eastward in lat. 66 deg. 45 min. S., and longitude 174 deg. 16 min. E.; and although the wind was blowing directly on it, with a high sea running, we succeeded in entering it without either of the ships sustaining any injury; and after penetrating a few miles we were enabled to make our way to the southward with comparative ease and safety.

"On the following three or four days, our progress was rendered more difficult and tedious, by thick fogs, light winds, a heavy swell, and almost constant snow showers; but a strong water sky to the southeast, which was seen at every interval of clear weather, encouraged us to persevere in that direction, and on the morning of the 9th, after sailing more than two hundred miles through this pack, we gained a perfectly clear sea, and bore away southeast towards the magnetic pole.

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"On the morning of the 11th of January, when in latitude 70 deg. 41 min. S., and longitude 172 deg. 39 min., land was discovered at the distance, as it afterwards proved, of nearly a hundred miles directly in the course we were steering, and therefore between us and the pole. Although this circumstance was viewed at the time with considerable regret, as being likely to defeat one of the more important objects of the expedition, yet it restored to England the honor of the discovery of the southernmost known land, which had been nobly won, and for more than twenty years possessed, by Russia.

"Continuing our course towards this land for many hours, we seemed scarcely to approach it. It rose in lofty mountainous peaks of from 9 to 12,000 feet in height, perfectly covered with eternal snow; the glaciers, that descended from the mountain summit, projected many miles into the ocean, and presented a perpendicular face of lofty cliffs. As we neared the land, some exposed patches of rock appeared; and, steering towards a small bay for the purpose of effecting a landing, we found the shore so thickly lined for some miles with bergs and back ice, and a heavy swell dashing against it, that we were obliged to abandon