EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AND ASSOCIATIONS.

AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY.

At the meeting of the American Geographical Society, held February 25, 1875, the annual address was delivered by Chief Justice Daly, the president of the society. Beginning with a brief survey of the remarkable physical phenomena of the year, including great falls of rain and snow, extreme and widely distributed cold, earthquakes, volcanic disturbances, floods, cyclones, &c., he alluded, in passing, to the geography of the sea bottom as made known by the recent examinations of the Challenger expedition, and then took up the geographical work in our own country, as carried on by the United States Engineer Corps and other explorers. The explorations of Lieutenant Wheeler show that every State and Territory west of the plains is crowded with the products of volcanic action, ancient and modern, the connected beds of lava in Arizona and New Mexico covering an area of twenty thousand square miles; and the conclusions of the geologists of the expedition are that volcanic disturbances and eruptions in our western territory will be resumed and may occur at any day. They have occurred so recently, geologically speaking, that it is extraordinary there is no human record of them. In the department of the Platte a new route to the Yellowstone Park has been discovered by Captain Jones's exploring party. The Black Hills country was penetrated by General Custer's military expedition and explored by Captain Ludlow. Professor Hayden's geographical survey has confirmed the discovery of 1872, that Colorado is the great center of elevation in the United States, having fifty peaks that aro about 14,000 feet high. In the Pacific Ocean soundings have been made for ascertaining a practical route for a telegraph cable between Japan and Puget Sound and for one from San Francisco to the Hawaiian Islands.

The separate researches and explorations of M. Pinvart and Mr. W. H. Dall, in Alaska and the Aleutian Islands, were next reviewed. M. Pinvart is of the opinion that the Esquimaux of this region are of the same stock as those of Greenland and Baffin's Bay, and concludes from their legends and traditions that they came originally from Asia across Behring's Straits. The probability of this conclusion is doubted by Mr. Dall; moreover, many American ethnologists think that Greenland and vicinity were peopled from Europe.

Professor F. W. Putnam, of Salem, Mass., bas been engaged in researches respecting the ancient inhabitants of North America. He believes that the Southern Indians (the Mound Builders of Ohio, Indiana, and other parts of the West) were not connected with the northern or eastern tribes, but were of the same stock as the ancient inhabitants of Mexico, though diversified by immigration and by mixing with other races.. In Central and South America specialists have carried on explorations in Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and the lower part of South America. A French expedition has been exploring Terra del Fuego.

The Arctic event of the year has been the return of the officers and crew of the Tegethof, of the Austrian expedition, and the important discoveries made by them.. This expedition, in the difficulties it encountered, the perseverance displayed, the discipline maintained, and the success achieved, is about as heroic as anything that has occurred in the history of Arctic exploration. The ship was frozen in off the coast of Nova Zembla from August till October, 1872, when the ice broke up, and they found themselves fixed upon an ice floe, helplessly drifting, but, strangely enough, to the northward. Drifting fourteen months in this way, mere passengers on an ice flce, they were at last driven ashoro and frozen in on a coast which they had discovered, but were unable to reach, two months before. This was in 79° 43′ north latitude and 60° 23′ east longitude. It was now November, 1873, and they had passed the eightieth paral lel. The long polar winter of 175 days set in, and the cold was so severe that the quicksilver remained frozen for weeks, and the darkness in midwinter was intense. The land, to which they gave the name of Franz-Joseph Land, was a most desolate region. In April, 1874, they set out in sledges and reached 81° 57' north latitude, coming upon a country which they called Crown-Prince Land, whose cliffs were covered with thousands of ducks and auks; seals lay upon the ice and there were traces of bears, hares, and foxes. Here, over a sea comparatively free from ice, they saw land in the distance, which seemed to stretch beyond the eighty-third parallel of north latitude. Their return journey was one of over three months' hardship, made in sledges. and boats.-(Popular Science Monthly.)

NEW ENGLAND SCHOOL SUPERINTENDENTS..

The New England Association of School Superintendents held its semiannual meeting at the City Hall, Boston, on the 7th of May, 1875. The papers and discussions. occupied the day and were unusually interesting.

At the morning session, which began at 9.30 o'clock, Mr. E. A. Hubbard, of Fitchburg, presided, with Mr. A. D. Small, of Salem, as secretary.

Health and comfort in schools.—Mr. J. W. Allard, superintendent of schools at Gloucester, Mass., opened the discussion upon "Physical health and comfort."

The subject of school architecture was first touched upon, and the hope expressed that the day of spending vast sums of money upon showy and useless ornamentation of the exteriors of our school buildings was rapidly passing. The statement was made that one-fourth of the amount was absolutely needed for the comfortable fitting up and proper equipment of the class rooms. The modern four story school-house, with class rooms in the fourth story, was emphatically condemned as destructive to the comfort and health, both of pupils and teachers. He thought that if this style of architecture must prevail, then the buildings should be furnished with steam-elevators, like that of the city hall.

The important topics of lighting, heating, and ventilating were fully discussed and a history given of the improvements which bave been made during the last thirty years in the material arrangements of school rooms with regard to dressing rooms, blackboards, tables, desks, and single seats.

The diversion of gymnastic exercises from their legitimate object of physical rest and culture to purposes of show was condemned in the severest language.

Kindergarten instruction and reports.-A paper on the subject of "Kindergarten instruction" was read by Superintendent Thomas Tash, of Lewiston, Me.

After a short recess, "The usefulness of monthly or occasional reports of pupils to their parents, and the manner of preparing these reports," was discussed by Mr. Waterman, of Taunton, who took the ground that occasional reports would be more advisable than any of the present systems of weekly or monthly reports. He gave an interesting account of the various methods which had been tried in Taunton, the amount of interest felt by parents in the matter, and presented an interesting résumé of the results. Practical education.-Mr. John D. Philbrick, of Boston, then presented a paper on the subject "How to make common school education practical." While he opposed the introduction of the workshop into the school, he favored a more practical use of its opportunities than is generally enjoyed. Mr. Philbrick's plan is, first, to discard the theory of aiming at mental discipline primarily, and adopt in its stead the theory of imparting the greatest amount of the most useful information; second, to introduce the following subjects of instruction: elementary geometry, natural philosophy, drawing, and elements of chemistry, as lying at the foundation of all industrial education; third, make room for these subjects by lopping off the more useless parts of the old branches, which, through the influence of rival bookmakers, have grown out of their due proportion; fourth, facilitate the acquirement of the needed practical knowledge by the adoption of better methods of teaching. He did not believe in teaching a child the names of all the branches of the Amazon and leaving him in ignorance of the principle by which water rises in a pump. After some debate on the best way in which to make a census of children between 5 and 15 years of age, it was voted that the matter be referred to a committee to report at the next meeting.

United States Bureau of Education.-The work of the National Bureau of Education was then presented to the meeting, and its importance recognized in the unanimous passage of the following resolutions, the first offered by Mr. Philbrick, of Massachusetts; the second, by State Superintendent Simonds, of New Hampshire; the third, by Superintendent Stone, of Springfield, Mass.:

"Resolved, That the National Bureau of Education, in its work of collecting and distributing annually, through printed reports and circulars, a vast amount of reliable and useful information, respecting the condition and progress of education both in our own and in foreign countries, has accomplished in the most satisfactory manner, so far as the limits of its means will permit, the objects for which it was established, and that we regard it as an indispensable instrumentality for the promotion of education throughout the country.

"Resolved, That, in the opinion of this body, the labors of the United States Commissioner of Education, General John Eaton, in promoting the educational interests of all sections of our country through the agency of the Bureau of Education, have been eminently wise and efficient, and that they merit and receive our cordial approbation. "Resolved, That a committee be appointed, consisting of one from each State represented in this body, to memorialize Congress in behalf of the continuance and liberal support of the National Bureau of Education."

The afternoon session was devoted to a discussion of the subjects so ably presented in the morning. Superintendent Harrington, of New Bedford, thought that the condition of most of our school-houses, as regards ventilation and conveniences, is abominable. He was tired of hearing praises on our perfect school system, even though it is centennial year, and thought it quite time that the facts should be known, however disagreeable they may be. But very few primary schools in the districts, the very places which should receive most careful attention, have a proper system of ventilation. The condition of the outhouses in too many of the schools is indescribably bad;

and, though the subject is distasteful, it needs immediate attention. There is need of a great reform.

Ventilation. The secretary, Mr. Small, of Salem, made reference to the subject of ventilation; whereupon, Mr. T. B. Stockwell, of Providence, gave an account of a system which produced excellent results in Providence. Mr. Marble, of Worcester, spoke of the objection in the mind of the public to the great expense attendant upon elaborate schemes of ventilation, and advocated a plan which has worked with complete success in the Asylum for the Insane at Worcester. Here, in the basement, a large fan is kept in slow but steady motion by an engine supplied by the steam in the building, keeping up in every part of the structure a steady current of warm, fresh air. By applying this arrangement, or a modification of it, to our school-houses and providing each room with an outlet, we can safely "trust to Providence" to clear out the foul air and give place to the fresh current continually ascending. Mr. Marble suggested the use of a sash with double windows directly connected, as doing away, to some extent, with the objectionable draughts of air inseparable from window ventilation.

Kindergärten.-Taking up Fröbel's, system Mr. Philbrick argued that the Kindergarten ought not to be a fixed institution, but should rather be considered an improved system of infant instruction. Viewed in this light, he was happy to report the Boston Kindergärten as doing splendid work. It is, however, the teacher far more than the system which makes the Kindergarten so great a success, as, indeed, in all grades of schools success depends very largely upon the instructor.

Mr. Stone, of Springfield, spoke of the advantages of a course of training which makes the child, at an early age, properly inquisitive and self-reliant. Mr. Tash explained some of the advantages of Fröbel's system of gifts, object and alphabet teaching; after which the subject of reports of scholars to their parents was further discussed by Messrs. Small of Salem, Harrington of New Bedford, and others.

"Practical education" resumed.-The final subject of discussion was Mr. Philbrick's paper on "Practical education." Messrs. Harrington of New Bedford and Hunt of Portland, Hood of Lawrence, and others talked over the subject. The matter of parsing, reading, spelling, and drawing was debated. Mr. Philbrick said that, in these things, too much attention was given to unimportant details. Reading is taught, for instance, in some of our schools as a fine art, and half the time thus used might give the scholar a knowledge of the French language. So in arithmetic. It may be "splendid" to train a girl to add in a minute a long column of figures, but it is splendid waste of time. So in spelling. President Feiton, when rallied on account of his numerous blunders in spelling, would say, "Spelling isn't my business; take up Greek, and I am ready for you." In something of this spirit, the mere mechanical acquisition of the orthography of a hundred difficult words ought to be as nothing when compared with weightier matters.

The matter of drawing elicited some discussion. Mr. Morrill, of Lowell, thought that the dissatisfaction with the system there was no greater than elsewhere in the State; while Mr. Waterman, of Taunton, said that drawing was the most popular branch of instruction in that city, because it had not been ridden as a hobby. There had been no wholesale purchases of drawing books; no exalting of this department to the dignity of an exhibition, while other branches of study are neglected. In a word, the study had not been pushed; and he did not doubt that the few objections raised against its use would disappear as quickly as those made against the introduction of music.

The committee on nominations reported for president, W. W. Waterman, of Taunton; for secretary, Augustus D. Small, of Salem; committee of arrangements, Ephraim Hunt of Portland, T. B. Stockwell of Providence, Edward Conant of Vermont; committee on nominations, A. P. Marble of Worcester, H. T. Hoyt, S. H. Marvel. The report was adopted and the nominations confirmed.-(New-England Journal of Education, May 15 and 22, 1875, pp. 235, 247.)

AMERICAN SOCIAL SCIENCE ASSOCIATION.

The annual meeting of this association was held, for 1875, at Detroit, Mich., from the 11th to the 15th of May. The sessions were opened by an address from the president, Hon. David A. Wells, on the larger life to be secured by such investigations as those prosecuted by the association. Among the papers read were important ones from Dr. D. F Lincoln, of Boston, secretary of the health department, on "A project of a law for a medical inspection of public schools, on "Care of the eyes in school and elsewhere," and on "Health in the public schools;" from Dr. S. S. Putnam, on "Gymnastics in schools," and from Superintendent W. T. Harris, of St. Louis, on "Ideal education." The limited space at our command admits of only a few extracts from the papers of Drs. Lincoln and Putnam, bearing on the improvement of the sanitary condition of our schools. Dr. Lincoln, for instance, presented, as follows:

(1) A PROJECT OF A LAW TO ESTABLISH THE OFFICE OF MEDICAL INSPECTOR OF SCHOOLS. (1) He shall be appointed by the head of the department of public instruction. (2) Term of office, three years.

(3) Must be a physician.

(4) Is expected to devote his entire time to the duties of his office.

(5) Salary, $3,000, payable quarterly, plus necessary expenses for clerical labor and travel.

(6) He shall take cognizance of the interests of health among the teachers and children of the public schools.

(7) He shall make sanitary investigations in respect to school-houses and grounds, and to all circumstances connected with the management and instruction of schools which may appear to influence the health of scholars or teachers.

(8) He shall make himself acquainted with the means employed in other States for preserving the health of the inmates of schools.

(9) He shall seek to trace the origin and mode of extension of epidemic or other diseases among inmates of schools, and to point out measures for the arrest or prevention of such diseases.

(10) He shall from time to time inform the department of public instruction of the results of the aforesaid investigations, and shall suggest to the said department such modifications of the system of instruction and management existing in the schools of this State as, in his opinion, would conduce to the improvement of the health of teachers and scholars.

(11) He shall further, in the month of January of every year, present to the department of public instruction a written report of his doings and investigations in the line of his duty as aforesaid for the year ending with the 31st of December next preceding.

(12) He shall gather and, from time to time, shall present to the department such information in respect to the interests of the public schools as he may deem proper for diffusion among the people.

RULES FOR THE CARE OF THE EYES

Were submitted by Dr. D. F. Lincoln, secretary of the department of health, A. S. S. A. When writing, reading, drawing, sewing, &c., always take care that (a) the room is comfortably cool and the feet warm; (b) there is nothing tight about the neck; (c) there is plenty of light without dazzling the eyes; (d) the sun does not shine directly on the object we are at work upon; (e) the light does not come from in front-it is best when it comes from over the left shoulder; (f) the head is not very much bent over the work; (g) the page is nearly perpendicular to the line of sight-that is, that the eye is nearly opposite the middle of the page, for an object. held slanting is not seen so clearly; and (h) that the page or other object is not less than fifteen inches from the eye. Nearsightedness is apt to increase rapidly when a person wears, in reading, the glasses intended to enable him to see distant objects.

In any case when the eyes have any defect, avoid fine needlework, drawing of fine maps, and all such work, except for very short tasks, not exceeding half an hour each; and in the morning never study or write before breakfast by candle-light. Do not lie down when reading. If your eyes are aching from fire light, from looking at the snow, from overwork, or other causes, a pair of colored glasses may be advised, to be used for a while. Light blue or grayish blue is the best shade, but these glasses are likely to be abused, and usually are not to be worn except under medical advice. Almost all those persons who continue to wear colored glasses, having perhaps first received advice to wear them from medical men, would be better without them. Travelling venders of spectacles are not to be trusted; their wares are apt to be recommended as ignorantly and indiscriminately as in the times of the Vicar of Wakefield.

SCHOOL HYGIENE.

Dr. Lincoln subsequently summed up thus the most conspicuous results of the investigation into this important matter:

(1) School work, if done in an unsuitable atmosphere, is peculiarly productive of nervous fatigue, irritability, and exhaustion.

(2) By "unsuitable" is chiefly meant "close" air, or air that is warm enough to flush the face, or cold enough to chill the feet, or that is "burned," or infected with noxious fumes of sulphur or carbonic oxide.

(3) Very few schools are quite free from these faults.

(4) Anxiety and stress of mind, dependent mostly on needless formalities in discipline or unwise appeals to ambition, are capable of doing vast harm.

(5) The amount of study required has not often been found so great as would harm scholars whose health is otherwise well cared for.

(6) Teachers who neglect exercise and the rules of health seem to be almost certain to become sickly or to "break down."

(7) Gymnastics are peculiarly needed by girls in large cities, but, with the preser. fashion of dresses, gymnastics are impracticable for larger girls.

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(9) One of the greatest sources of harm is found in circumstances lying outside of school life. The social habits of many older children are equally inconsistent with good health and a good education.

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A PAPER UPON SCHOOL GYMNASTICS

Was then read by Dr. S. S. Putnam, of Boston, who divided his subject into three inquiries:

(1) In what way and to what extent may gymnastic training be made useful in the education of school children?

(2) What means of securing it have been adopted and with what results? (3) What means will be likely to insure the best results in our schools?

As to the first matter, Dr. Putnam suggested that gymnastic training could not fail to be of use in regard to training children who are not naturally strong, and therefore not inclined to take part in ont-door sports, which are, of course, beneficial to the healthy and vigorous among our children.

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It is not necessary that very great muscular power should be developed, as that is not necessarily conducive to good health, nor does it always accompany it. One way in which school children may be greatly benefited is by helping them perfect the process of respiration. This was demonstrated by the work done by Professor Monroe with the children of the Boston schools. Good breathing is by no means common, and the singing teacher has always much to accomplish in this respect. Instruction in this regard may not only give vastly increased power to healthy persons, but it may save many who are affected by lung disorders from early deaths.

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Proper physical instruction in our schools would also relate to the sitting of the scholars, to proper methods of studying or of mental application, to proper means of ventilation, &c. It is a notorious fact that many cases of injury to the spinal column arise from improper postures while sitting. Among 731 pupils at Neufchâtel, 62 cases of this sort were observed among 350 boys and 156 cases among 381 girls. The curvature of the spine occasioned was mostly to the right, caused no doubt largely by writing at unsuitable desks. Herr Raag, of Berlin, says that he has found gymnastics very useful in preventing these spinal curvatures.

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For proper school gymnastics it is only requisite that there should be space enough about the desks to enable the pupil to advance one step and to swing the arms freely. A large hall with a few desirable pieces of apparatus is all that is needed for further gymnastic exercise, which is to give to the scholars special accomplishments in this matter. In Europe, halls are now considered absolutely necessary for the use of scholars in the public schools.

SANITARY REQUIREMENTS OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS.

Under this head an important paper was presented by Dr. Lincoln, containing the following suggestions:

(1) The yard should be placed by preference toward the sides where other buildings are standing, or may hereafter be erected, rather than toward the street; should contain at least 32 square feet of surface for each scholar, in order to serve as playground; should be situated so high as never to be overflowed with water; should be paved, so as to be quickly dried after rain; should be fenced, in certain cases, toward all thoroughfares and alleys, in order to shield from the gaze of passers by.

(2) The site should be elevated rather than low. Dampness of soil should condemn any site. The sun should have free access to the house on three sides at least. Many trees near the house are to be avoided, except ih quite warm climates. Should not be near factories, railroads, &c.

(3) The cellar must be drained dry. A cellar, or else an air space of two feet, must extend under the entire lower floor of the house, except in situations where the soil is very dry.

(4) Basement. The ceiling of the basement must be at least six feet above the ground. The height of such a room should not be less than ten feet, and it must be thoroughly lighted. Basements of which any portion is under ground should not be used for school work of any description except gymnastics, and the latter are to be assigned by preference to a loftier room, above ground, when this is possible. Basements may serve for space for clothes closets, if thought fit.

(5) Entries should be always warmed and ventilated; lighted sufficiently from out

of doors.

(6) Stairs must be fire-proof, as also the walls inclosing them; straight, never spiral; height of steps, 4 to 5 inches, and proportion of breadth considerable, the breadth being made at least six feet in large schools; it must have no well; not more than two runs in a stair.

(7) Fire escape to be provided for every school-house of three stories.

(8) Hall.-A large ball for assembling the whole school at once is a desirable feature, and if included in the plan it should have a floor space, in feet, equal to the whole number of scholars multiplied by 6, (for younger scholars,) or 7, (for older,) and should be not less than 14 feet high. The ventilating arrangements for such a hall must be such that 1,000 cubic feet of air per hour can be taken out for every one of the scholars as aforesaid.

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