chemistry, it would appear that some error must have been committed in the experiments. (For an account of the spontaneous changes to which vegetables are liable, see the article on Fermentation; see also the article Plants.)

VEGETABLES. (See Plants.) VEGETATION. The wide extension of vegetable life furnishes one of the most striking examples of the productive power of nature. Every climate has its peculiar vegetation. The coldest countries are not entirely destitute of it, and it has been thought by naturalists that even perpetual snow is the abode of some species of vegetables. Saussure discovered in it a reddish dust, and the navigators in the arctic regions frequently observed in it a red coloring matter, supposed to belong to the order alga. The absence of light does not altogether prevent vegetable existence. Caverns and mines produce certain plants, principally those of the cryptogamous class. Vast fields of marine plants spring from the depths of the ocean, especially towards and within the tropics. The vine-leaved fucus vegetates at the depth of two hundred feet. The surface of the Atlantic, in some parts, is covered with masses of floating fuci, which are supposed by botanists to grow at the bottom of the sea, and to be torn off when ripe by the motion of the waters. Extreme heat is not destructive of vegetation, provided it be accompanied by humidity. Plants grow not only on the borders, but even in the waters, of hot springs. The greatest obstacle to vegetation is the absence of moisture. Those sandy tracts where rain seldom or never falls, and where the soil is constantly shifted about by the winds, exhibit a 'complete sterility. The chemical nature of the soil influences the size and vigor of plants, rather than sets limits to their cultivation common salt, however, dissolved and scattered over the earth, almost entirely prevents their growth. The scale of atmospherical heat is what ordinarily determines the character and progress of vegetation. In the torrid zone, therefore, it is only necessary to ascend mountains to a certain height, to find the trees, fruits and flowers of the temperate zone, and, still higher, those of the frigid zone. (See Mountains, and Temperature.) The vegetation which covers the sides of mountains, thus forms distinct zones or bands, each having its peculiar vegetable tribes. On the volcano of Teneriffe, for example, five of these zones have been distinguished: 1. the region of

vines; 2. of laurels; 3. of pines; 4. of the alpine broom; and, 5. of grasses. In the equinoctial regions, where the seasons differ little in respect of heat, the geographical distribution of plants is regulated almost entirely by the mean temperature of the whole year; but, in the temperate zone, this distribution depends more upon the mean temperature of the summer season. Some plants only require a certain degree of heat for a short period, while for others a more moderate heat is sufficient, if of longer duration. Thus the birch does not put forth leaves under a temperature of 53° or 54°; but the pine requires a long rather than a warm summer. In Lapland, therefore, where the summer, though short, is warm, the birch rises nearer the line of perpetual congelation than the pine; but in the Alps and other high chains in low latitudes, where the summer is longer, but colder, the pine is seen after the birch has disappeared.

The frigid zone contains but few species of plants; yet of these the vegetation in summer is extremely rapid. The verdure of countries within the polar circle is confined chiefly to southern aspects, and the trees are of diminutive growth. Besides mosses and lichens, there exist ferns, creeping plants, and some shrubs yielding berries. In the high latitudes of the northern temperate zone are the pine and the fir, which show their adaptation to a cold climate, by retaining their verdure through the rigors of winter. Advancing southward, we meet successively the oak, the elm, the beech, the lime, and other forest trees. Several fruit-trees, amongst which are the apple, the pear, the cherry, and the plum, grow better in the northern half of this zone; while to its more southern parts especially belong the more delicate fruits, such as the olive, the lemon, the orange and the fig, and, amongst trees, the cedar, the cypress and the cork. The space comprised between the thirtieth and the fiftieth parallels of latitude may be considered as the country of the vine and the mulberry. Wheat extends as far north as the sixtieth degree; oats and barley a few degrees farther. In the southern part of this zone, maize and rice are more commonly cultivated. The vegetation of the torrid zone is characterized by a wealth, variety and magnificence no where to be found in the other regions of the globe. Under the beams of a tropical sun, the most juicy fruits and the most powerful aromatics arrive at perfection: the ground there yields the

sugar-cane, the coffee-tree, the palm, the bread-tree, the pisang, the baobab, the date, the cocoa, the vanilla, the cinnamon, the nutmeg, the pepper, the camphor-tree, &c. The cow-tree of South America yields vegetable milk. There are also various sorts of dye-wood, and several species of corn, peculiar to hot climates; while the elevated tracts of these regions produce the plants of the temperate countries. The vegetable forms near the equator are in general more majestic, and their coloring more brilliant, than in higher latitudes. The largest trees are adorned with flowers, larger, more beautiful, and more odoriferous, than those of herbaceous plants in our zone.

The distribution of plants cannot be explained solely by the influence of climate, or by the distribution of temperature; for it frequently happens, that similar climates are found in different parts of the globe, without identity of production. The climate of the high mountains of the torrid zone is analogous to that of the temperate zone; yet Humboldt did not discover one indigenous rose-tree in all South America; and this shrub is entirely wanting in the southern hemisphere. The genus erica (heath) is peculiar to the old world, not one of the 137 species known being found in the new. On the other hand, the cactus (Indian fig) is confined to the new world. According to Humboldt, the species of plants at present known amount to 44,000. Of these, 6000 are cryptogamous. The remaining 38,000 phanerogamous plants are thus distributed: In Europe, 7000; temperate regions of Asia, 1500; tropical and insular regions of Asia, 4500; Africa, 3000; temperate regions of America, 4000; tropical regions of America, 13,000; Pacific islands, 5000. A remarkable circumstance in the distribution of plants is the extreme rarity of the social plants (that is, those which, like the heath, live together, and cover large tracts of land) between the tropics, where they are found only on the sea shore and upon elevated plains. Among the vegetable forms, there are some which become more common from the equator towards the poles, as the ferns, the heaths, and the rhododendrons; others, on the contrary, increase from the poles towards the equator, as the rubiacea, the euphorbia, and the leguminous plants; while others, such as the crucifera, the umbelliferæ, &c., are most abundant in the temperate zone, and diminish in number towards the poles and the equator. Such constant

relations prevail in respect of vegetable forms, that when, upon any point of the globe, we know the number of species belonging to one of the great families, both the whole number of phanerogamous plants, and the number of species composing the other vegetable families, may be estimated with considerable accuracy. It has been a question much discussed among philosophers, in what way the various vegetable tribes were originally diffused over the surface of the earth; and three different hypotheses have been proposed. Linnæus supposed a single primitive centre of vegetation, whence all species of plants have beer gradually dispersed over the globe by winds, rivers, currents, animals, &c. A second hypothesis is, that each species of plants originated in a primitive centre, of which there were several in different parts of the globe, each being the seat of a particular number of species. The third hypothesis is, that, wherever a suitable climate existed, there the vegetable tribes sprang up, and that plants of the same species were, from the first, spread over different regions.

VEGETIUS RENATUS, Flavius, the most celebrated of the Roman writers on the military art, flourished towards the end of the fourth century, in the reign of the emperor Valentinian II. He is supposed to have been an inhabitant of Constantinople, but nothing certain is known of his history. The work of Vegetius De Re Militari is to be found in various editions of the Veteres de Re Militari Scriptores; and it has been often printed separately. Among the best editions are those of Schwebel (Nuremberg, 1767, 4to.; and Strasburg, 1806, 8vo.).—Publius Vegetius, who, notwithstanding the difference of prænomen, has been confounded with the military tactician, was a writer on farriery. His work, entitled Artis Veterinariæ sive Mulo-medicina, lib. iv., was first printed at Basle in 1528; but the best edition is that of J. M. Gesner (Manheim, 1781, 8vo.). This treatise is likewise included in the Scriptores Rei Rustica.

VEHME. (See Fem.)

VEII, on the river Cremera, one of the twelve Etrurian cities, which were under the government of their own lucumones, early became involved in hostilities with the inhabitants of the neighboring Rome, which was of a more recent origin. A post near Cremera, which the Fabii were employed to defend, was intended to check the attacks of the in

habitants of Veii. A war was the consequence, in which the Fabii were defeated; but the Romans were afterwards victorious, at the moment when they intended to retreat. The siege of Veii ensued (349-358 A. U. C., or 396 B. C.), and lasted ten years, until Camillus, who had been appointed dictator, penetrated through a mine into the city; and slaughter and outrage were the punishment of the long resistance of the people. (Livy v, 19-23.) Camillus carried even the statue of Juno, the protectress of Veii, to Rome, where a temple was erected to her on the Aventine hill. Veii was so completely laid waste, that, four hundred years later, herds grazed on its ruins (Propertius, iv. 10, vv. 29, 30); and in modern times, the very site of the ancient city has been a subject of much dispute. Livy's account of the distance of Veii from Rome (v, 4) seems to agree best with the situation of Monte Lupoli, along the Cassian road, in the wood of Baccano, the charming situation of which reminds the spectator of Athens. Cæsar established a Roman colony at Veii; but the Goths and Lombards destroyed it.

VEIN. (See Blood-Vessel, and Heart.) VELASQUEZ, or DON DIEGO VELASQUEZ DE SILVA, an eminent Spanish historical and portrait painter, was born at Seville in 1599. He studied under Herrera and Pacheco, and his first efforts were employed on familiar and domestic subjects, until the sight of some of the pictures of the Italian masters inspired him with loftier ideas. He was in particular charmed with the coloring of Caravaggio, whom he began to make his model ; and his success in that style equalled his most sanguine expectation. Having spent five years with Pacheco, he repaired to Madrid, and obtained the patronage of the duke d'Olivarez, who introduced him to Philip IV, by whom he was appointed his principal painter (1623). While in that situation, Rubens arrived at Madrid, and recommended him to spend some time in Italy; which advice he followed, and acquired such an improvement in taste, correctness, composition and coloring, as placed him at the head of his profession. On his return to Spain (1631), he was received with the most flattering distinction; and he was, some time after (1648), employed by the king to make the tour of Italy, and procure a collection of pictures and statues. After his return to Spain (1651), Velasquez painted the royal family in a picture, called, by way of distinction, The Family, with which the king was so

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much pleased, that he raised him to the dignity of a noble (1658). His compositions are remarkable for their strong expression, freedom of pencil, and admirable tone of coloring. Among his best works are the Aguador, or Water-carrier, now in the palace of Madrid; the Brothers of Joseph; Job; Moses taken from the Nile; Lot and his Daughters; the Expulsion of the Moors by Philip III; with many portraits and pictures from common life. He died in 1660.

VELASQUEZ DE VELASCO, Louis Joseph, marquis of Valdeflores, a Spanish historical writer, was born at Malaga in 1722, and, after completing his studies, was employed by Ferdinand VI to collect materials in Spain illustrative of the ancient history of the country. He left many materials in manuscript, and published Origines de la Poesia Española (Malaga, 1754), with some other works of value. He died in 1772.

VELD; a Dutch word, signifying the same as the German Feld (English field), and appearing in a number of geographical names.

VELDE, William van der, called the Old, one of a distinguished family of painters, was born at Leyden in 1610. He was originally bred to the sea, but afterwards studied painting, and retained enough of his former profession to make it the source of his future fame. He became early distinguished for his excellence in marine subjects, which induced him to go to England with his son, both of whom entered into the service of Charles II. He is said to have repaid this service more gratefully than patriotically, by conducting the English fleet to burn Schelling. He was so much attached to his art, that, in order to be a near spectator of sea engagements, he hired a light vessel, in which he approached both friends and enemies, in order to sketch all the incidents of the action upon the spot; and in this manner he is said to have been a spectator of the engagement between the duke of York and Opdam, and of the memorable three days' engagement between Monk and De Ruyter. He chiefly painted in black and white, on a ground so prepared on canvass, as to give it the appearance of paper. He died at London in 1693. (See Walpole's Anecdotes.)

VELDE, William van der, called the Younger, was born at Amsterdam, in 1633, and was the son of the preceding. After being carefully instructed by his father, he was placed under Simon de Vlieger, a

celebrated painter of sea pieces, who, however, was far surpassed by his pupil. His subjects were similar to those of his father, whom he surpassed; and, in fact, no age, since the revival of art, has produced his equal in his own peculiar line, of which Walpole calls him the Raphael. He was, equally with his father, a copyist of reality, and, by order of the duke of York, attended the engagement at Solebay in a small vessel; as also the junction of the English and French fleets at the Nore. The principal performances of this admirable artist are chiefly to be found in the royal collections and cabinets of England. He died April 6, 1707, in his seventy-fourth year. (See Walpole's Anecdotes.)

VELDE, Adrian van der, a celebrated Dutch landscape painter of the seventeenth century, was born at Amsterdam, in 1639, and died in 1672. He is one of the best painters of landscapes. He is also known for having painted the figures and animals in the landscapes of other artists, e. g. of his teacher Moucheron, Van der Hayden, &c. He also painted some large historical pieces.

VELDE, Francis Charles van der, author of many historical novels, was born in Breslau, in 1779. He studied law, and held a judicial office in his native city, at the time of his death, in 1824. He has been called the German Walter Scott; but the historical element predominates much more in his novels than in Scott's. His complete works, with his biography, were published at Dresden in 1824, in 25 vols.

VELDECK, Henry. (See Minnesingers.) VELEDA, VELLEDA; a German prophetess in the country of the Bructeri, in the first century, much feared by the Romans, as she exercised a great influence over her countrymen. Her history is enveloped in darkness.

VELIKI (Russian for great) is prefixed to many geographical names, to distinguish certain places from others of the same name, which have the epithet malo (little). VELINO. (See Terni.)

VELITES, in Roman antiquity; young, light foot-soldiers, who fought in front of the lines, and retreated, if necessary, between the members of the first line (hastati). Napoleon introduced troops of this name into the regiments of infantry; and in the hussar regiments of Hungary there are also men called velites. The French sometimes call a skirmish a velitation. VELLEIUS, Paterculus. (See Paterculus.)

VELLUM ; a writing material, resembling

fine parchment. It is made of calf-skin, extended and drawn to a proper thinness when green. Parchment is made of sheep-skins in like manner. (See Parch ment.)

VELOCIPEDE (in German, Draisine, be cause invented by a Mr. Drais, in Man heim, in 1817) is a vehicle consisting of a piece of wood about five feet long and half a foot wide, resting on two wheels, one behind the other. On this an individual sits, as on horseback, so that his feet touch the ground. He propels the machine by pressing his feet slightly against the ground, and keeps his balance in the same way. The latter is the principal difficulty of beginners. In front of the saddle is a rest for the arms. front wheel may be turned at pleasure, so as to enable the rider to give any direction to the machine. Knight, in England, improved it, and received a patent for it. On level ground a rider may perform five miles in an hour with ease.

The

VELOCITY. (See Mechanics.) VELVERET; a species of cotton velvet. (See Velvet.)

VELVET; a rich kind of stuff, all silk, covered on the outside with a close, short, fine, soft shag, the other side being a very strong, close tissue. The nap or shag, called also the velveting, of this stuff, is formed of part of the threads of the warp, which the workman puts on a long, narrow-channelled ruler or needle, which he afterwards cuts by drawing a sharp steel tool along the channel of the needle to the ends of the warp. Florence, Genoa, and some other cities of Italy, are most noted for the manufacture of velvet. There are cotton velvets manufactured in imitation of the silk ones in England. (See Silk.) VENA CAVA. (See Heart.)

VENAISSIN, COMTAT DE (county of Venaissin); a country of France, bounded north by the Drome, east by Lower Alps, south by Mouths-of-the-Rhone, and west by the Rhone, which separates it from Gard; about twelve leagues in length, and seven in breadth. It takes its name from Venasque, the Vendansca or Vendasca of the ancients. The popes laid claim to the sovereignty of this country, from the time of count Raymond de St. Gilles. This country now belongs to France, and forms part of the department of Vaucluse.

VENALITY OF OFFICES, in France. (See Paulette.)

VENCESLAUS. (See Wenceslaus.) VENDÉE, a department in the western part of France, formed from the ancient Poitou (see Department), and deriving its

name from the river Vendée, is bounded by the departments of the Lower Loire, of the Two Sévres and of the Lower Charente, and by the Atlantic ocean. In the beginning of the revolution of 1789, the inhabitants of this part of the country, who were attached to the royalist cause, maintained a war against the republican government, which, had there been more concert among the Vendean leaders, or had foreign powers employed the opportunity judiciously, would have endangered the existence of the new republic. The scene of the war, familiarly called Le Bocage (the thicket), lay in three contiguous departments along the Loire, and was well calculated for maintaining a partisan warfare. It contains numerous small woods and thickets, and is much intersected by ditches and small canals. The Vendeans were a simple and ignorant race, attached to old usages, devotedly fond of the nobility of the province, and easily led by the clergy. The immediate occasion of the war was the resistance of the people to the operation of the conscription laws, in 1793. Cathelineau, a wagoner, at the head of 100 of his comrades, having overpowered a small body of republican troops, and taken possession of their arms, was encouraged to further enterprises; and similar risings took place at different points, but without any general coöperation. A wig-maker, Gastou, led the insurgents in the department of Vendée, and, having fallen soon after, was succeeded by Charette. Stofflet, a gamekeeper, led another band. The insurgents were at first armed only with scythes, clubs and pikes; but they soon obtained arms, by surprising detachments of the republican forces. Their knowledge of the country, and their excited enthusiasm, gave them advantages over their enemies, who were chiefly raw troops, and not always zealous in the cause of the republic. As soon as an enterprise was accomplished, the Vendean peasants immediately dispersed to their homes, and assembled again at a minute's warning. The young De la Rochejaquelein (q. v.) gained several advantages at the head of one of the bands. The number of the insurgents was gradually increased by the accession of emigrants and royalists from other parts of the country, and they had become possessed of regular arms. The convention, therefore, found it necessary to send troops of the line against them. June 24, the Vendeans took Šaumur, and now received encouragement, but no effectual aid from abroad. Between the

19th and 23d of September (1793), several actions took place, of which that at Chollet was the most sanguinary, all to the disadvantage of the republican forces. But disunion began to prevail among the Vendeans. Charette, at the head of his followers, separated from the other insurgents, who were now hard pressed by the republican forces, and, deceived by expectations of aid in Brittany, took the imprudent step of crossing to the right bank of the Loire. They were equally disappointed in their hopes of assistance from England, which had induced them to approach towards the coast near Avranches, and were finally compelled to attempt a retreat over the Loire, after several bloody engagements. They reached the river towards the end of December, but were unable to effect a passage; and the battle of Savenay (Dec. 24), after which the Vendean army was entirely dispersed, concluded the campaign. The war had all along been conducted with great cruelty, and the fate of the surviving Vendeans and their families was dreadful. They were dragged in crowds to Nantes, where the monster Carrier, to whom the severe orders of the convention appeared too mild, and the ordinary modes of execution too slow, caused them to be drowned in masses (noyades). The convention now looked upon the war as ended; but, in the spring of 1794, La Rochejaquelein (who soon, however, fell) and Stofflet assembled new bodies of insurgents in Vendée, and Charette was at the head of his forces on the coast. At the same time, the Chouans (q. v.) appeared on the right bank of the Loire, in the departments of Morbihan and Côtes du Nord. They pretended the same zeal for religion, royalty and the nobility, but did not always make common cause with the Vendeans, with whom they must not be confounded. The events of this campaign were not so decisive as those of the preceding; but the obstinacy of the insurgents convinced the convention that Vendee could not be conquered by arms. After the fall of Robespierre, the insurgents were therefore invited, at the suggestion of Carnot (Dec. 1794), to return to their homes, with promises of pardon and oblivion of the past. In February, 1795, the deputies of the convention, and some of the Vendean leaders, among whom were Charette and Sapineau, agreed to the following conditions:-that a general amnesty should be granted, the Vendeans should acknowledge the authority of the republic, and should enjoy the un