the state, injuring foreign sovereigns and ambassadors, inducing subjects to emigrate, and levying soldiers for foreign powers. In the new plan of 1822 (by Gönner), these ideas are somewhat differently arranged. The second class of treasons is united with high treason; the idea of treason against the state is limited to the third class; and the fourth is brought under the title of actions dangerous to the security of the state. High treason is distinguished from other crimes, inasmuch as it is regarded as wholly perpetrated, i. e. is obnoxious to the full punishment of the law, so soon as the design is evinced by actions, and inasmuch as those are participators in it who are acquainted with treasonable projects, and do not reveal them.

TREASURY. In the U. States, the department of the treasury is under the management of the secretary of the treasury. (See Secretaries.) In England, there was formerly a lord high treasurer, who was the principal officer of the crown, and under whose charge was the treasure in the royal exchequer. He was invested with his office by the delivery of a white staff to him by the king. But for upwards of a century, the management of the treasury has been put in commission. There are five commissioners, among whom are the first lord of the treasury, and the chancellor of the exchequer. The former is considered as prime minister, and has the appointment of all offices employed in collecting the revenues of the crown, the disposal of all places relating to the revenue, and power to let leases of crown lands. The latter, to whom is specially intrusted the revenue and expenditure of the nation, commonly takes the lead of the ministerial party in the house of commons, in which the seats occupied by that party are called the treasury benches. The of fices of first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer are sometimes united in the same person, when the former is a commoner, as in the case of Pitt and Canning.

TREBIA; a river of Italy, duchy of Parma, which falls into the Po above Piacenza. It is noted as the scene of Hannibal's second victory over the Romans (see Hannibal), and was also the scene of Suwarrow's victory over the French in 1799. TREBISOND, OF TARABOSAN (anciently Trapezus); a city of Asiatic Turkey, capital of a pachalic, with a harbor on the Black sea, founded by a Greek colony of Sinope; lon. 39° 28′ E. ; lat. 41° 3′ N.; pop

ulation estimated at about 15,000. The houses, mostly built of stone and lime, are of a mean appearance. It contains eighteen mosques, eight khans, five baths, and ten Greek churches, and is the residence of a pacha and a Greek metropolitan. The trade is considerable. The present walls are built of the ruins of the ancient edifices. The castle, which is much neglected, is situated upon a rock, and its ditches are cut in the rock. Trebisond was, at one time, the capital of a small kingdom, erected by Alexius, a Byzantine prince, at the time when the capital of the empire was captured (1204) by the Latins, or crusaders from the West. (See Byzantine Empire.) His successors assumed the imperial title, and continued to bear their family name, Comneni. (q. v.) After this little state had existed for two centuries, Mohammed II besieged and captured the king in his capital (1461), and incorporated the kingdom with the Turkish territories.-See Fallmerayer's History of the Empire of Trebisond (in German, Munich, 1827).

TREBUCHET, OF CUCKING-STOOL. (See Cucking-Stool.)

TRECHT, DRECHT, TRICHT; termination of many Dutch names (derived from the Latin trajectum, passage, ford), as Dordrecht, Utrecht, Mastricht (passage of the Masa, Meuse). It is the same as the German Furt. (q. v.)

TRECKSCHUYT; a sort of covered vessel, sixteen to twenty-six paces long, and three to six broad, drawn by horses, and used in the Netherlands on the canals. They go at fixed times from one town to another, and have generally a large apartment for all the travellers, together with a cabin for those who wish to be private. TREE. (See Plant.)

TREE-NAILS; certain long, cylindrical wooden pins, employed to connect the planks of the ship's side and bottom to the corresponding timbers. They are superior to spike nails or bolts, which are liable to rust and loosen. The thickness of the tree-nails is usually proportioned to the length of the ship, allowing one inch to every hundred feet.

TREE OF LIBERTY. (See Liberty Tree.)
TREMOLITE. (See Hornblende.)

TRENCHES are, in general, all those works which are used in attacking a fortress; hence, when a siege (q. v.) is commenced, the trenches are said to be opened. Ditches are dug from three to five feet deep, from ten to twelve feet broad, and the earth taken from them is thrown up on the side toward the fortress, to

afford a defence against the shot. In order to protect the flanks, the ditches are so extended as to reach beyond the fortress. This gives to the trenches a zigzag form. Trenches of this kind were first used by the French, at the siege of Harfleur, 1449. The idea of this mode of proceeding is found even among the ancients. Sometimes the besieged construct counter trenches (contre approches), to the extreme point of the trenches of the besiegers, and place cannon on them.

TRENCK, Frederic, baron von der, a Prussian officer, born at Königsberg, in 1726, was the descendant of an ancient family. In his youth he displayed an adventurous disposition, and, at the age of sixteen, was admitted to the court of Frederic the Great, as a cadet in the regiment of guards. The king made him his aid-de-camp, and, in the seven years' war, Trenck greatly signalized himself. An intrigue with the sister of Frederic involved him in severe misfortunes, and he was at length imprisoned in the fortress of Glatz, under pretext of his carrying on a correspondence with his cousin, Francis von der Trenck, commander of the Pandoors in the service of Austria. Having effected his escape, his relation, general Lieven, who was in the service of Russia, persuaded him to go to Moscow, where he was exceedingly well received. Having visited Sweden, Denmark and Holland, he returned to Vienna to take possession of the property of his cousin, who died in 1749, and then took a journey to Italy. On his return, he was appointed a captain of Austrian cuirassiers, and, joining his regiment in Hungary, he contributed materially to its improvement in discipline. The death of his mother taking place in 1758, he went to Dantzic to arrange the disposition of her property, when he was arrested and conducted to the fortress of Magdeburg, where he remained in close confinement till 1763. His involuntary seclusion was devoted to ineffectual projects for effecting his escape, to study, and to writing verses. Being at length set at liberty, probably through the interference of the princess Amelia, he went to Aix-la-Chapelle, where he fixed his residence, and, in 1765, married the daughter of a burgomaster of that city. Literature, politics, and commerce as a wine-merchant, then alternately engaged his attention. He wrote a piece entitled the Macedonian Hero, the professed design of which was to unmask the character of Frederic II, and edited a weekly paper called the Friend of Men. In 1772,

he commenced a gazette at Aix-la-Chapelle, which he conducted for some time with considerable success. His wine trade failing, he returned to Germany, and was employed in various political missions. At Vienna, he received new favors from the empress, Maria Theresa, who bestowed a pension on the baroness Trenck, which, however, she lost on the death of that princess, for whom Trenck composed a funeral oration and ode. He then retired to his castle of Zwerback, in Hungary, where, for six years, he devoted himself to agricultural pursuits. He also published, by subscription, various works in prose and verse, including the history of his own life. After an exile of fortytwo years, he was permitted to revisit his native country, in 1787, when he was kindly received by the successor of the great Frederic; and he had an interview with the princess, to whose favor he had owed so many of his misfortunes. The revolution in France found a ready partisan in Trenck, who published some political pamphlets, which involved him in disgrace with the Austrian government; and he not only lost a pension which he had hitherto received, but also suffered a short imprisonment. Towards the end of 1791, he revisited France, but was arrested on suspicion of being a secret emissary of the king of Prussia, and imprisoned at St. Lazarus. There being no evidence to support this charge, he was accused of having taken part in a conspiracy in the prison, for which he was guillotined, July 25, 1794.

TRENT; a city of Tyrol (in Latin, Tridentum, called by the Italians Trento, and by the Germans Trient), formerly capital of a princely bishopric of the same name, sixty-five miles north-west of Venice; lon. 11° 4′ E.; lat. 46° 6 N.; population, 9603. It is situated on the Adige, in a delightful valley among the Alps; but its climate is subject to great extremes, being intensely cold in winter and hot in sum

mer.

It is surrounded with walls, and contains a cathedral, two other churches, an hospital, a gymnasium, and a lyceum or central school. The streets are tolerably wide and well paved, the houses generally old. The inhabitants are employed partly in the manufacture of silk, and partly in the culture of vines and tobacco. Trent is remarkable for a famous council, commenced in 1545, terminated Dec. 4, 1563, having continued, with more or less interruption, during eighteen years. (See the next article.)

Trent, Council of. The reforma

tion of the church, which had been the object of the councils of Constance and Basle, the policy of the popes would not suffer to be carried into execution. Pius II, in 1460, forbade an appeal to a general council, and Julius II renewed this prohibition in 1512. But to such a council only could Catholic Christendom look for the accomplishment of its earnest wish for a thorough reformation of the church; and, in the course of the German reformation, even the Protestant princes expressed their desire for such an assemblage of the clergy. The emperor Charles V urged it zealously. He found it a very effectual mode of alarming the pope, and curbing the Protestant princes, and thus controlling both parties, to persevere in demanding that a council should be convoked on German soil; for whilst the pope justly feared the questions which might come under investigation, the German Protestants dared not, on account of the Catholic states, refuse at least to accept a proposal, which, in reality, was of importance only for the latter. Charles solemnly announced a council to the states at the diet of Augsburg, in 1530, and, in order to prevent his summoning it also, preparations for it were made in Rome. Accordingly, Clement VII, in that same year, decreed it, but without fixing the time; and Paul III, his successor, appointed it to be held, May 27, 1537, at Mantua. As the conditions offered by the duke of Mantua were not acceptable, the place was changed to Vicenza, and May 1, 1538, was fixed upon, when, as no prelates arrived, it was again delayed till Easter, 1539; and, as neither France nor Germany consented to the place selected, it was again postponed to an indefinite period, in consequence of the resolutions of the diet of Ratisbon, in 1541. Paul summoned it again for Nov. 1, 1542, and showed his willingness to choose a German city by naming Trent. His legates arrived there Nov. 22; but a war of the emperor with France gave occasion to another postponement to a more convenient time. Such a time the pope believed he had found amidst the preparations of Charles against the Protestants, and summoned the council to meet on March 15, 1545. The cardinals Del Monte, Cervino della Croce, and Pole, arrived at Trent, at the appointed time, as presiding legates; but as the number of bishops (twenty) and envoys who followed was but small, the time was spent in disputes about rank, and in pleasure excursions; the summer passed away, during which

the prelates came and went, till at length, at the command of the pope, Dec. 13, 1545, the general council of Trent (Sacrosancta acumenica et generalis synodus Tridentina, præsidentibus legatis apostolicis, thus called in the papal brief) was solemnly opened, twenty-five bishops and some other prelates being present. In the succeeding confidential conferences, it was agreed that committees of bishops and doctors of theology should prepare the subjects to be treated in particular and general meetings (not public sessions of the fathers), the proposed decrees and canons should be decided by a majority of votes (the votes being reckoned, not by nations, as at Constance, but by heads); the public sessions in the cathedral, with mass and preaching, should be merely ceremonial acts, for publishing and confirming the resolutions that had been adopted. This method of voting by heads, of which the Italian prelates and the titular bishops (who were both on the side of the pope) formed the majority; and the circumstance that the committees were chosen and instructed by the legates, was sufficient to give a turn to the council according to the will of the pope, who had formed, at Rome, a particular assembly of cardinals to consult upon the affairs of the council. Add to this the vigorous, proud and domineering spirit of the cardinal Del Monte, entirely devoted to his master; his daily, nay, hourly, correspondence with him by means of an uninterrupted line of couriers, which brought to him, according to the changing resolutions of the pope, public and private directions for every aspect of affairs, and many other arrangements by which the Roman policy was able to influence the assembled prelates according to circumstances. Hence even the Italian bishops were heard to complain, that the council was not a free one. Princes and people expected from this union of holy men the abolition of abuses which had been long complained of, and an improvement of the church in its head and members, which would obviate the objections of the Protestants, and induce them to return to the bosom of the Catholic church. The imperial envoys openly urged that this should be the chief object of their labors, yet, in the second and third sessions, Jan. 7 and Feb. 4, 1546, nothing was done except the reading of rules for the regulation of the fathers while at Trent, of exhortations to extirpate heretics, and of the Nicene creed. From the fourth to the eighth of April, when

five archbishops and forty-eight bishops were already assembled, two decrees were enacted, in which the reception of the Apocrypha into the canon of the Holy Scriptures was taken for granted; tradition was declared of equal authority with the Bible; the Latin translation of the Bible, known by the name of Vulgate, was received as authentic; and the church was declared the only legitimate interpreter of them. From these, as well as from the decrees of the fifth, sixth and seventh sessions, June 17, 1546, Jan. 13, and March 3, 1547, on the doctrines of original sin, justification, and the seven sacraments, till then not confirmed by a statute of the church, it was evident that the pope and his legates had the intention of placing Catholicism in pointed contrast with the doctrines of Protestantism. To each of these decrees, several canons, that is, anathemas against those who dissented from them, were added. In order to pay some attention to the wishes of the nation, strenuously supported by the emperor, the legates added some decrees, for the purpose of reformation, to those intended merely for the settlement of doctrines. The duties of preachers, and the administration of the inferior offices, from the bishops downwards, were more suitably arranged, without, however, radically attacking the prevailing abuses. Even by these half measures, the legates feared they had yielded too much; and, as the violent contentions between the prelates and the clergy of various orders, the bold assertions and proposals of the imperial envoys and German bishops, made the course of the deliberations continually more doubtful, and a speedy vacancy of the papal chair was anticipated, the legates made use of the false rumor of a pestilence in Trent, and, in accordance with a power long since received from Rome, in the eighth session, March 11, 1547, resolved upon transferring the assembly to Bologna, which was immediately followed by the departure of the Italian fathers.

The solemn protestations of the emperor against this measure compelled eighteen bishops, from his states, together with the bishop of Trent, cardinal Madruzzi, to remain in that city, whilst the legates, with six archbishops, thirty-two bishops, and four generals of religious orders, contented themselves, at Bologna, in the ninth and tenth sessions, April 21 and June 2, with publishing repeated decrees of adjournment, without deciding further upon the subject of the council. The nominal council at Trent, in the mean

time, held no session, and, as the emperor firmly refused to consider the assembly at Bologna as a council, and as the bishops departed, one after another, the pope at length declared, in a bull of Sept. 17, 1549, the council adjourned. After his death, the cardinal Del Monte, Feb. 8, 1550, ascended the papal chair, under the name of Julius III, and formally announced, at the desire of the emperor, the reassembling of the council of Trent in that very year. His legate, the cardinal Marcellus Crescentius, a man of a passionate temper, came with two nuncios to Trent, and opened the council, May 1, 1551, with the eleventh session. This second period commenced with little splendor, on account of the small number of prelates present; and even when the influence of the emperor had brought together the German archbishops, besides many Spanish, Italian and German bishops, in all sixty-four prelates, yet, on account of the deficiency of theologians, only the subjects of future deliberations could be decided upon in the twelfth session, Sept. 5, 1551. France kept back its bishops, as in the first period of the council, and presented, in this session, protestations against the continuation of it, by its envoy, James Amyot, on account of the then existing political contentions between king Henry and the pope. Nevertheless, the fathers proceeded in their work. The Jesuits Lainez and Salmeron, who had been sent as papal theologians, had a decisive influence upon the decrees, which now, laying aside scholastic differences, were briefly and precisely drawn up respecting the Lord's supper, penance, and extreme unction, and were published, the first with eleven canons, in the thirteenth session, Oct. 11, the two last, with nineteen canons, in the fourteenth session, Nov. 15. They added to this two decrees of reformation on the jurisdiction of the bishops, in which the limits of the episcopal authority, and the causes admitting of appeal to the pope, were determined, encroachments in foreign dioceses, and abuses in exercising the rights of patronage, and in the dress of the clergy, were prohibited; and the privileged ecclesiastical bodies, universities, monasteries, hospitals, &c., were exempted from the jurisdiction of the bishops. The canons, connected with the dogmatic decrees, contained only sentences in condemnation of the opinions of Luther and Zwingli; and yet the pope had invited the Protestants, by several nuncios, to take part in this act of the council, as the

emperor insisted on their admission. Some envoys of the Protestant powers appeared, indeed, at Trent; those of Brandenburg in order to obtain from the pope the confirmation of prince Frederic in the archbishopric of Magdeburg, those of Würtemberg, and deputies from the cities of Upper Germany, to please the emperor, and perhaps also at the instigation of the elector, Maurice, whose own envoy arrived there Jan. 7, 1552, and obtained an audience Jan. 24, in a general assembly. To his extreme vexation, the cardinal legate was obliged to consent, that the Protestant theologians also should be heard, and provided with safe conducts. In order to cut off every possibility of an agreement with the Protestants, he had composed a decree on the consecration of priests, entirely in the spirit of Gregory VII; yet the emperor gained his object, and, in the fifteenth session, Jan. 25, this decree was not published, but only a postponement of the deliberations was resolved upon till the arrival of the Protestant divines. Under the imperial protection, the divines of Würtemberg and Upper Germany (from the cities) now also came to Trent, and the Saxons were already on their way thither, under the conduct of Melanchthon. These measures, however, were only a stratagem on the part of Saxony, in order to lull the emperor into security, as was soon evinced by the sudden commencement of hostilities on the part of the elector, Maurice, who forced the emperor to fly, and the members of the council to disperse. They resolved, accordingly, in the sixteenth session, April 8, upon its adjourn ment for two years, without having even commenced negotiations with the Protestants. Amidst these circumstances, of the greatest disadvantage for the authority of the pope, the treaty of Passau, and the religious peace of Augsburg, were concluded, and two Catholic princes, the Roman king Ferdinand, and the duke of Bavaria, even ventured, at their own risk, to grant to their Protestant subjects the privilege of the cup, though the council had refused them permission so to do. In France, the increasing power of the Protestants threatened to extort similar, and still greater privileges; and because pope Paul IV (1555-59) would hear nothing of any council held without the city of Rome, the French bishops thought of summoning a national synod, for the settlement of the religious disputes. Paul's successor, Pius IV, saw himself compelled, in 1560 and 1561, to reassemble the

general council. Although the Protestauts did not accept the invitation, and the French government, rejecting the previous decrees of the council, demanded an entirely new and independent council, yet it was reopened, Jan. 8, 1562, by six legates of the pope, under the presidency of the cardinal, prince Hercules Gonzaga, of Mantua, with 112 bishops, mostly Italians, four abbots, and four generals of religious orders. In the eighteenth session, Feb. 26, a decree was merely published for preparing an index of prohibited books; but, in the nineteenth, May 4, and in the twentieth, June 14, it was again resolved to delay the publication of new decrees. This delaying was a common means of the Roman policy to avoid opposition; for France, as well as the emperor and Bavaria, repeated their propositions for the reformation of the church, and for the admission of the laity to the cup in the Lord's supper, the marriage of the priests, and a revision of the laws concerning forbidden meat; and, besides, all the bishops, except those from Italy, agreed in the opinion so odious to the pope, that the episcopal power and rights were not of papal but of divine origin. But, in consequence of the majority of the Italian bishops, the results of the votes were always in favor of the views of the Roman court. Thus there were passed, in the twenty-first and twenty-second sessions, July 16 and Sept. 17, 1562, the decrees respecting the celebration of the Lord's supper, and the sacrifice of mass, allowing preparatory explanations in the vernacular languages; but the laity were referred to the pope, as respected their demand for the cup in the Lord's supper. In these sessions, there were present 230 prelates, besides the ambassadors of the Catholic courts; and the number was increased, Nov. 13, by the arrival of the cardinal of Lorraine, with fourteen bishops, three abbots and eighteen theologians, from France, who not only gave new strength to the opposition, but also proposed thirty-four articles of reformation, which could not but be exceedingly offensive to the Papal party. This party, therefore, resorted again to delays, and postponed the next session from one month to another. Gonzaga, who was generally esteemed for his uprightness, but who was fettered in every step by the directions which he received from the Roman court, died meanwhile, March 2, 1563; and, in his place, the new legates Moroni and Stavageri presided, who amused the fathers with empty for