rocks, occurring imbedded in them in larger or smaller masses, sometimes occupying_drusy cavities of considerable extent. It exists also in beds with augite, garnet and various iron ores. It is also met with in pebbles in the sand of rivers. In Saxony, Cornwall and other countries, massive varieties of tourmaline are very frequent; but simple, well-defined crystals are rare. The largest and most remarkable crystals of a black color occur in Greenland, in Bavaria, and near Bovey in Devonshire. The red varieties are found in Permia, in Siberia, and at Rozena in Moravia. Pale-green crystals occur in the dolomite of St. Gothard, and various transparent, deep-green, red, brown and blue colors are found among the crystals and pebbles from Brazil and Ceylon. Blue varieties also come from Utön in Sweden. The U. States, however, have afforded, and still continue to afford, the most superb varieties of tourmaline. Large, black and well-defined crystals occur in the granite of Saratoga, New York; of Brunswick, Maine; and Munroe, Connecticut very perfect blackish-brown crystals, of unusual dimensions, and under great diversity of modification, are found in a soft mica slate at Munroe, Connecticut; red, green and blue varieties, of bright colors, and often transparent, exist in albite granite at Chesterfield and Goshen, Massachusetts; while the same colored varieties, but in much larger crystals, occur at Paris in Maine. The last-named locality has furnished specimens which are unsurpassed in beauty by any which have been elsewhere found. Tourmaline, when of a handsome color and transparent, is much esteemed as a gem. The rubellite, or red varieties, command the highest price; next to them, the green ones, formerly called Brazilian emerald, are the most valuable; but they are less esteemed than real emeralds. Plates of brown tourmaline, if cut parallel to the axis, absorb one of the polarized pencils, which renders them useful in the examination of the structure of minerals in polarized light.

TOURNAMENT, and Jousts. "Impartial taste," says Gibbon, "must prefer a Gothic tournament to the Olympic games of classic antiquity. Instead of the naked spectacles, which corrupted the manners of the Greeks, the pompous decoration of the lists was crowned with the presence of chaste and high-born beauty, from whose hands the conqueror received the prize of his dexterity and courage. The skill and strength that were exerted

in wrestling and boxing, bear a distant and doubtful relation to the merit of a soldier; but the tournaments, as they were invented in France, and eagerly adopted both in the East and West, presented a lively image of the business of the field. The single combat, the general skirmish, the defence of a pass or castle, were rehearsed as in actual service; and the contest, both in real and mimic war, was decided by the superior management of the horse and lance." (ch. 57.) The origin of tournaments is uncertain: Von Hammer, with others, derives them from the Arabians; but all historical monuments tend to show their Teutonic origin. They reached their full perfection in France in the ninth and tenth centuries, and first received the form under which they are known to us from the French. The word tournament is also evidently of French origin (tournois, from tourner); and the German, Italian, &c. terms for this exhibition betray the same source. Godfrey de Preuilly, a French nobleman, first collected the rules of tourneying, in 1066, which, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, we find to have been received in other countries. The opinion that tournaments originated in Germany, is without foundation: Sebastian Munster asserts that the first great tourney in Germany was held at Magdeburg in 1066. Tournaments were introduced into England soon after the conquest by the Normans, who were passionately fond of this amusement. Jousts (French joûte) differed from tournaments in being single combats between two knights, while tournaments were performed between two parties of cavaliers. Jousts were of two sorts-the joûte a l'outrance, or the joust to the utterance, or mortal combats, generally between two knights of different nations; and the joûte à plaisance, or joust of peace, which often took place after the conclusion of a tournament, but sometimes at times and places specially appointed for the purpose. Weapons of war were frequently used, even in this latter species of jousts; but blood was seldom shed in them. A favorite description of jousts was the passage of arms; a party of knights assembled at a certain place, and suspended each several shields of different colors, offering to combat any knight who should present himself. The comer touched the shield of that knight whom he wished to engage, and the nature of the combat and descriptions of arms to be employed were determined by the particular shield which he struck.

But the tournament was the most popular and splendid of these exhibitions: in these, blunted weapons were used, and heralds were often despatched to different courts, inviting all brave knights to prove their chivalry. Certain qualifications of birth were required for admission to the tourney, and their respective hostels, or tents, were assigned to the knights by the king at arms and heralds. The place of combat was the lists, a large open space, surrounded by ropes or a railing. Galleries were erected around the lists for the spectators, among whom were seated the ladies, the supreme judges of tournaments. The heralds then read to the knights the regulations of the sport, and announced the prize. When the knights entered the lists, their arms were examined by the constable: the weapons used were lances, with the points removed, or covered with pieces of wood called rockets, and swords, blunted and rebated. The tilting armor was of a light fabric, and generally adorned with some device of a lady's favor. Every thing being prepared, the heralds shouted, Laissez aller! and the knights dashed from the opposite ends of the lists to the encounter. Each knight was followed by his squires, who furnished him with arms, raised him if dismounted, &c. To break a spear between the saddle and the helmet was accounted one point of honor; to break it on the helmet, ten points; to dismount an opponent, three points, &c. (See the Ordinances, Statutes and Rules to be observed in Justes, &c., drawn up by the earl of Worcester, by the royal command, in the Antiquarian Repertory.) The sport being over, the prizes were delivered to the successful knights by the queen of beauty, who had been chosen by the ladies. On the second day, there was often a tournament for the esquires; and on the third, a mêlée of knights and esquires in the lists. The great luxury and expense to which the tournaments gave rise, frequently occasioned the prohibition of them by princes; and they were opposed also by the spiritual power, on the ground of humanity, though there appears to have been little cause for such opposition. They gradually went out of use, however, as chivalry declined; and the whole art of war was changed by the use of gunpowder. In France, the death of Henry II, who was accidentally killed, at a tournament, by count Montgomery (q. v.), in 1559, contributed to hasten their abolition; and they were little practised after the sixteenth

century. Tournaments were succeeded by the carrousel, in which several parties of knights executed various evolutions, and mock combats, and other shows were exhibited.-See Mills's History of Chivalry, ch. vi, on Tournaments and Jousts; and Ferrario, Romanzi di Cavalleria, diss. v.; Sui Tornei, sulle Giostre, &c. (Milan, 1828).

TOURNAY, or DOORNICK; a city of Belgium, in Hainaut (q. v.), on the Scheldt, three posts east of Lille, and thirty-one north of Paris; lon. 3° 23′ E.; lat. 50° 36 N.; population, 33,000. It is a bishop's see, has a citadel, a cathedral, twelve parish churches, seventeen convents, and five hospitals. It formerly had a university, now converted into a lyceum. On the side of the Scheldt is a broad, handsome quay, the only embellishment of the town, which is, in general, ill built and gloomy. It has manufactures of woollen and cotton stuffs, was formerly strongly fortified, and had one of the finest citadels in Europe, which was levelled by the French in the middle of the eighteenth century. It was anciently the capital of the Nervii, and was the residence of some of the Frankish kings of the first dynasty. This city has often been taken in the wars between the French, English and Flemings.

TOURNEFORT, Joseph Pitton de, an eminent French botanist, born at Aix, in Provence, in 1656, was educated at the Jesuits' college in that city. His passion for botany disclosed itself at an early age, so that in a short time he had made himself acquainted with all the plants in the vicinity. Though destined for the church, he continued his botanical researches by stealth; and, encouraged by an uncle, who was an eminent physician, applied to the study of anatomy and chemistry. In 1677, being left, by the death of his father, to pursue his own inclinations, he determined to adopt the medical profession, and for that purpose repaired, in 1679, to Montpellier. In 1683, he was appointed professor of botany to the garden of plants at Paris, and soon after visited Spain, Portugal, England and Holland. In 1691, he was elected a member of the academy of sciences, and, in 1694, published his first work, entitled Elemens de Botanique (3 vols., 8vo., with numerous plates). The method established by Tournefort was founded upon the varieties of the petals of flowers, taken in conjunction with the fruit. It became rapidly popular by its facility and elegance, although imperfections were pointed out in it by Ray. In 1696, he was admitted a

doctor of the faculty of Paris, and composed the History of Plants in the Neighborhood of Paris (first edition, 1698; reprinted by Jussieu in 1725, in 2 vols.; an English translation was given by professor Martyn, in 1732). In 1700, he gave a Latin version of his Elements of Botany, with many valuable additions, and a learned preface, under the title of Institutiones Rei Herbaria (3 vols., 4to.). In the same year, he received an order from the king to travel into the Levant, for the purpose of examining the plants mentioned by writers of antiquity, and accordingly visited Greece and its islands, and Asia Minor as far as the frontiers of Persia. He returned to France by way of Smyrna, in 1702; and the first botanical fruits of his travels appeared the following year, in a supplement to his Elements of Botany. He died in 1708, leaving his cabinet of curiosities to the king for public use, and his botanical books to the abbe Bignon. The first volume of his travels was printed at the Louvre before his death, and the second being completed from his manuscripts, both were published in 1717, with the title of Rélation d'un Voyage du Levant (2 vols., 4to.). Of this work, which stands high among books of the class, there have been several editions, and it has been translated into English.

TOURNIQUET; an instrument employed in the practice of surgery to stop bleeding. It can, however, only be applied to the limbs, and its use is only intended to be temporary.

TOURNOIS, Livre. (See Livre.)

TOURS; a city of France, capital of Indre-and-Loire, on the Loire; 140 miles south-west of Paris; lon. 41' E.; lat. 47° 24 N.; population, 20,920. It is situated in a delightful plain, in one of the finest parts of France, the surrounding country being remarkably beautiful. It is an archiepiscopal see, and contains a cathedral, remarkable for its lofty spire, and library (30,000 vols.), fourteen churches, three hospitals, a botanic garden, and a museum. The houses are generally low, and the most of the streets are narrow and gloomy. But the Rue neuve, or royale, is a street of great elegance, the houses being built of stone, on a uniform plan. The bridge over the Loire, 1400 feet long and 45 wide, consists of fourteen arches. The approach to the town is remarkably fine, the avenues being bordered with rows of trees. The principal manufacture is that of silk, which formerly employed in the town and neighborhood 20,000 people;

but at present not more than one third of that number. Tours was formerly more populous than at present. Before the revolution it was the capital of Touraine. In 732, the Saracens were defeated, by Charles Martel, near this town, with the loss of 10,000 men.

TOUSSAINT-LOUVERTURE, the celebrated black chieftain, was born a slave, in the year 1745, upon the plantation of count de Noé, situated near cape Français, now cape Haytien. His amiable deportment as a slave, the patience, mildness and benevolence of his disposition, and the purity of his conduct amid the general laxity of morals which prevailed in the island, gained for him many of those advantages which afterwards gave him such absolute ascendency over his insurgent brethren. His good qualities attracted the attention of M. Bayou de Libertas, the agent on the estate, who taught him reading, writing, and arithmetic-elements of knowledge which hardly one in ten thousand of his fellow slaves possessed. M. Bayou made him his postilion, which gave him advantages much above those of the field-slaves. When the general rising of the blacks took place, in 1791, much solicitation was used to induce Toussaint to join them; but he declined, until he had procured an opportunity for the escape of M. Bayou and his family to Baltimore, shipping a considerable quantity of sugar for the supply of their immediate wants. In his subsequent prosperity, he availed himself of every occasion to give them new marks of his gratitude. Having thus provided security for his benefactors, he joined a corps of blacks, under the orders of general Biassou, in the capacity of his lieutenant; but was soon raised to the principal command, Biassou being degraded on account of his cruelty and ferocity. Indeed, Toussaint was every way so much superior to the other negroes, by reason of his general intelligence and education, his prudence, activity, and address, not less than his bravery, that he immediately attained a complete ascendency over all the black chieftains. Thus it happened that, in June, 1794, when the English, under general Whyte, captured Port au Prince from the French commissioners Santhonax and Polverel, the latter, on retiring into the country, found the whole island in the possession of Rigaud, at the head of the mulattoes, and Toussaint-Louverture, with his negroes. They contended with various success against the English, until 1797, when Toussaint

received from the French government a commission of general-in-chief of the armies of St. Domingo, and, as such, signed the convention with general Maitland for the evacuation of the island by the British. From 1798 until 1801, the island continued peaceable and tranquil under the government of Toussaint, who adopted and enforced the most judicious measures for healing the wounds of his country, and restoring its commercial and agricultural prosperity. His efforts would have been attended with much success, but for the ill-judged expedition which Bonaparte sent against the island, under the command of Le Clerc. This expedition, fruitless as it was in respect of its general object, proved fatal to Toussaint, solely in consequence of the sincerity and good faith which marked his character. Toussaint was noted for private virtues; among the rest, warm affection for his family. Le Clerc brought out from France Toussaint's two sons, with their preceptor, Coisnon, whose orders were to carry his pupils to Toussaint, and make use of them to work on the tenderness of the negro chief, and induce him to abandon his countrymen. If he yielded, he was to be made second in command to Le Clerc; if he refused, his children were to be reserved as hostages of his fidelity to the French. Notwithstanding the greatness of the sacrifice demanded of him, Toussaint remained faithful to his brethren. We pass over the details of the war, which, at length, ended in a treaty of peace concluded by the black chief Toussaint, Dessalines and Christophe, against their better judgment, but in consequence of the effect of Le Clerc's professions upon their simple followers, who were induced to lay down their arms. Toussaint retired to his plantation, relying upon the solemn assurances of Le Clerc, that his person and property should be held sacred. But, notwithstanding these assurances, he was treacherously seized in the night, hurried on board a ship of war, and transported to Brest. He was conducted, first to close prison in Chateaux de Joux, and from thence to Besançon, where he was plunged into a cold, wet, subterranean prison, which soon proved fatal to a constitution used only to the warm skies and free air of the West Indies. He languished through the winter of 1802-1803; and his death, which happened in April, 1803, raised a cry of indignation against the government which had chosen this dastardly method of destroying one of the best and bravest

men of the negro race.-See Malo, Histoire de Haiti, published 1825, p. 181255); also the article Hayti.

TOWER OF LONDON. This ancient edifice is situated on the north bank of the Thames, at the extremity of the city. The antiquity of the building has been a subject of much inquiry; but the present fortress is generally believed to have been built by William I, and garrisoned with Normans, to secure the allegiance of his subjects; although it appears, that the Romans had a fort on this spot. The Tower is governed by the constable of the Tower, who, at coronations and other state ceremonies, has the custody of the regalia. The principal entrance on the west consists of two gates on the outside of the ditch, a stone bridge over it, and a gate within it. The keys are kept during the day at the warder's hall, but deposited every night at the governor's house. The Tower is separated from the Thames by a platform, and by part of the ditch. The ditch, of considerable width and depth, proceeds northwards on each side of the fortress, nearly in a parallel line, and meets in a semicircle; the slope is faced with brick, and the great wall of the Tower has been frequently repaired with that material. Cannon are planted at intervals round the line, and command every avenue leading to Tower hill. The space enclosed by the walls measures twelve acres five roods, and the circumference on the outside of the ditch is 3156 feet. On the south side of the Tower is an arch called the traitor's gate, through which state-prisoners were formerly brought from the river. Near the traitor's gate is the bloody tower, in which it is supposed the two young princes, Edward V, and his brother, were smothered by order of Richard III. In the south-east angle of the enclosure were the royal apartments; for the Tower was a palace for nearly 500 years, and only ceased to be so on the accession of queen Elizabeth. The principal buildings within the walls are the church, the white tower, the ordnance office, the old mint, the record office, the jewel office, the horse armory, the grand storehouse,-in which is the small armory, the lion's tower, containing the menagerie, and the Beauchamp tower. The church called St. Peter in Vinculis, is remarkable as the depository of the headless bodies of numerous illustrious personages who suffered either in the Tower or on the hill; amongst these are Fisher, Anna Boleyn, Thomas Cromwell, Catharine Howard,

the duke of Somerset, and the duke of Monmouth (1685). The white tower, a large, square, irregular building, erected in 1070, consists of three stories. On the first story are the sea armory, consisting of muskets for the sea-service, and other warlike implements of every description, and the volunteer armory, for 30,000 men. Within the white tower is the ancient chapel of St. John, originally used by the English monarchs, which now forms a part of the record office. South of the white tower is the modelling room, in which are models of Gibraltar and other places; but no strangers are admitted. The parade near the white tower is much frequented as a promenade. The office of the keeper of the records contains the rolls from the time of king John to the beginning of the reign of Richard III. Those since that period are kept at the Rolls chapel, Chancery lane. The price of a search is 10s. 6d., for which you may pursue one subject a year. The jewel office is a strong stone room, in which are kept the crown jewcls, or regalia. The imperial crown, and the other emblems of royalty, such as the golden orb, the golden sceptre and its cross, the sceptre with the dove, St. Edward's staff, state salt-cellar, curtana or sword of mercy, golden spurs, armilla or bracelets, ampulla or golden eagle, and the golden spoon, also the silver font used at the baptism of the royal family, the state crown worn by his majesty in parliament, and a large collection of ancient plate, are kept here. The horse armory is a brick building, east of the white tower, adorned with suits of armor of almost every description; but the most striking are the effigies of the English kings on horseback, armed cap-à-pie. The line commences with William the Conqueror, and extends to George II. Several of the cuirasses and helmets taken at Waterloo are also kept here. The grand storehouse, north of the white tower, about 345 feet in length and 60 in breadth, is composed of brick and stone, was begun by James II, and finished by William III. The upper story is occupied by the small armory, containing arms for about 200,000 men, all kept bright and clean, and numerous historical curiosities. The Spanish armory is principally occupied by the trophies taken from the Spanish armada, such as thumb-screws, battle-axes, boarding-pikes, &c. Here also are shown a representation of queen Elizabeth in rmor; the axe which severed 'the head of Anna Boleyn, as well as that of the

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earl of Essex; the invincible banner taken from the Spanish armada; a wooden cannon used by Henry VIII, at the siege of Boulogne, &c. The Beauchamp tower is noted for the illustrious personages formerly confined within its walls. Amongst them were the ill-fated Anna Boleyn and the accomplished lady Jane Grey. The former is said to have written her memorable letter to Henry VIII in the apartment called the mess-house. The lion's tower, built by Edward IV, was originally called the bulwark, but received its present name from being occupied as the menagerie. It is situated on the right of the inner entrance to the Tower; but the animals kept here are not numerous.-See Bayley's History of the Tower (2 vols., 4to., 1821), and Britton and Brayley's Memoirs of the Tower (1 vol., 12mo., 1830).

TOWNLEY, Charles, a gentleman of large fortune, which he employed in the collection of antiquities, was born at Townley hall, in Lancashire, in 1737. The religious opinions of his family preventing his receiving a university education in England, he was sent to the continent; and a residence at Rome enabled him to form a museum, replete with valuable manuscripts, specimens of the finest sculpture, medals, vases, urns and other relics of ancient art. These he transported, eventually, to England, and bequeathed to the British museum. (See Terra Cotta.) His death took place January 3, 1805.

TOWNS. We have already given an account of the rise and growth of towns in modern Europe, and of their moral and political influence upon society, in the articles City, and Community. (See these articles, and also Hanse Towns, and Free Cities.) In a general sense, town, in England, is a walled place, or borough, and comprehends the several species of cities, boroughs (q. v.), and common towns or villages; but, in a narrower sense, it is restricted to the latter class of places, a city being a place which is or has been a bishop's see, and a borough a place which sends members to parliament. In the U. States, where the different states are divided into counties (with the exception of South Carolina and Louisiana, in the former of which the divisions are termed districts, and in the latter, parishes), the word town has a somewhat different signification. In the New England and Middle States (with the exception of Delaware), and in Ohio, the counties are subdivided into townships, which, at least in many of the states, are improp