longer axis of the crystals; fracture conchoidal, though with difficulty observed; lustre metallic adamantine; color various shades of brown, more or less dark, also indigo-blue; streak white, semi-transparent; hardness nearly that of feldspar; specific gravity 3.82. It dissolves with difficulty in the salt of phosphorus, before the blow-pipe, and the portion not melted becomes white and semi-transparent. It occurs in narrow, irregular veins, accompanied by albite, quartz, mica, and axinite. Its chief localities are Bourg d'Oisans in Dauphiny, and in Switzerland; it is also found in Cornwall, in Norway, in Spain and Brazil. 3. Ilmenite. Axotomous iron ore (Mohs); menaccanite? iserine? The primary form of this species is believed to be a rhomboid of 85° 59. It occurs massive, rarely crystallized in what are described by professor Kupfer as being variously modified four-sided prisms; color black; streak brownish; opaque; lustre on the fracture shining and resinous; fracture conchoidal; no visible cleavage; hardness between apatite and feldspar; specific gravity 4.6-4.8. It is unalterable before the blow-pipe, and consists of

It occurs in the Ilmen mountains of the Ural chain. The menaccanite, a substance found in small, black, angular grains, at Menaccan, in Cornwall, and at Botany Bay, as well as the iserine, found at Iser, in Silesia, and some other places, are believed to fall within the present species. 4. Crichtonite resembles very closely the ilmenite. It occurs in very small crystals, in the form of acute rhomboids, having the summits replaced, and being otherwise variously modified by secondary planes, the only cleavage being at right angles to the axis of the rhomboid. It is perfectly black, opaque, and of a shining lustre; fracture conchoidal. It is harder than fluor. Before the blowpipe, it conducts much like ilmenite, but is believed to be a silicate of titanium. It occurs, along with anatase, on crystals of quartz, at Dauphiny. 5. Sphene (silico-calcareous oxide of titanium) occurs for the most part in well-defined crystals, which have the general figure of very flat octahedrons, but which are deriv24

VOL. XII.

ed from an oblique rhombic prism of 133° 30′, parallel to which a distinct cleavage may be effected. Fracture imperfect conchoidal or uneven; lustre adamantine, sometimes inclining to resinous; color brown, yellow, gray and green; streak white; translucent on the edges; rarely transparent; hardness about that of apatite; specific gravity 3.46. Besides occurring in crystals, it is found massive, with a granular or lamellar composition. Before the blow-pipe, the yellow varieties do not change their color: all the rest become yellow. They intumesce a little, and melt on the edges into a dark-colored enamel. They are soluble in heated nitric acid, and leave a residue of silex. Sphene is composed of lime 32.20, oxide of titanium 33.30, and silex 28.00. It oecurs in small nodules or crystals, imbedded in gneiss and beds of sienite. It is also found in white limestone, along with augite, scapolite, garnet and hornblende. It comes from several districts of the Sanalpe in Carinthia, where it is found in a coarse-grained gneiss. Other European localities are, near Dresden in Saxony, Arendal in Norway, St. Gothard, and Scotland. In the U. States it has been found in numerous places; but no where so abundantly as at Roger's rock, on the shore of lake George, where it occurs in gneiss with augite and hornblende. It is also found at Bolton in Massachusetts, in limestone, along with petalite, augite and scapolite, and at Amity, Orange county, New York.

TITHES, OF TYTHES; the tenth part of the increase yearly arising from the profits of lands, the stock upon lands, and the industry of the occupants, allotted to the clergy for their maintenance. The custom of giving and paying tithes is very ancient. In Gen. xiv. 20, Abraham gives Melchisedek the tenth of all the spoils taken from the four kings defeated by him. Tithes were first legally enjoined by Moses. They were not established by Christ. The Christian priests and the ministers of the altar lived at first upon the alms and oblations of the devout. For the first three hundred years after Christ, no mention is made in ecclesiastical history of any such thing as tithes. The first authority produced (setting aside the apostolical constitutions, which few of the advocates of tithes will insist on) is a provincial synod at Cullen, in 356, in which tithes are voted to be God's rent. After the church had enjoyed tithes without disturbance for two or three centuries, the laity, in the eighth century, ob

tained possession of part of the tithes, and appropriated them to their own uses. Some time afterwards they restored them, or applied them to the founding of monasteries or chapters. In 1179, the third council of Lateran commanded the laymen to restore to the church all the tithes which they yet held. Upon the first introduction of tithes, though every man was obliged to pay. tithes in general, yet he might give them to what priests he pleased, which were called arbitrary consecrations of tithes; or he might pay them into the hands of the bishop, who distributed among his diocesan clergy the revenues of the church, which were then in common. But when dioceses were divided into parishes, the tithes of each parish were allotted to its own particular minister; first by common consent, or the appointments of lords of the manors, and afterwards by the written law of the land. However, arbitrary consecrations of tithes took place again afterwards, and became common in England till the time of king John. This was probably owing to the intrigues of the regular clergy, or monks of the Benedictine and other rules, and will account for the number and riches of the monasteries and religious houses which were founded in those days, and which were frequently endowed with tithes. But, in process of years, the income of the laborious parish-priests being scandalously reduced by these arbitrary consecrations of tithes, it was remedied in England by pope Innocent III, about the year 1200, in a decretal epistle, sent to the archbishop of Canterbury, which enjoined the payment of tithes to the parsons of the respective parishes, where every man dwelt, agreeably to what was afterwards directed by the same pope in other countries. This put an effectual stop to all the arbitrary consecrations of tithes, except some traces which still continue in those portions of tithes, which the parson of one parish has, though rarely, a right to claim in another; for it is now universally held that tithes are due, of common right, to the parson of the parish, unless there be a special exemption. This parson of the parish may be either the actual incumbent, or else the appropriator of the benefice; appropriations being a method of endowing monasteries, which seems to have been devised by the regular clergy, by way of substitution to arbitrary consecrations of tithes. (See the article Impropriations.) Mr. Smith observes (Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, vol. iii), that

tithes, as well as other similar taxes on the produce of the land, are, in reality, taxes upon the rent, and, under the appearance of equality, are very unequal taxes; a certain portion of the produce being, in different situations, equivalent to a very different portion of the rent. In some very rich lands, the produce is so great, that the one half of it is fully sufficient to replace to the farmer his capital employed in cultivation, together with the ordinary profits of farining-stock in the neighborhood. The other half, or, what comes to the same thing, the value of the other half, he could afford to pay as rent to the landlord, if there was no tithe. But, if a tenth of the produce is taken from him in the way of tithe, he must require an abatement of the fifth part of his rent, otherwise he cannot get back his capital with the ordinary profit. In this case, the rent of the landlord, instead of amounting to a half, or five tenths, of the whole produce, will amount only to four tenths of it. In poorer lands, on the contrary, the produce is sometimes so small, and the expense of cultivation so great, that it requires four fifths of the whole produce to replace to the farmer his capital, with the ordinary profit. In this case, though there was no tithe, the rent of the landlord could amount to no more than one fifth, or two tenths, of the whole prod-. uce. But if the farmer pays one tenth of the produce in the way of tithe, he must require an equal abatement of the rent of the landlord, which will thus be reduced to one tenth only of the whole produce. Upon the rent of rich lands, the tithe may sometimes be a tax of no more than one fifth part, or four shillings in the pound; whereas, upon that of poorer lands, it may sometimes be a tax of one half, or of ten shillings in the pound. It is a great discouragement to the improvement of land, that a tenth part of the clear produce, without any deduction for the advanced expense of raising that produce, should be alienated from the cultivator of the land to any other person whatever. The improvements of the landlord and the cultivation of the farmer are both checked by this unequal tax upon the rent. The one cannot venture to make the most important, which are generally the most expensive improvements, nor the other to raise the most valuable, which are generally the most expensive crops, when the church, which contributes no part of the expense, is to share so very largely in the profit. When, instead either of a certain portion of the

produce of land, or of the price of a certain portion, a certain sum of money is to be paid in full compensation for all tax or tithe, the tax becomes, in this case, exactly of the same nature with the land tax of England. It neither rises nor falls with the rent of the land. It neither encourages nor discourages improvement. The tithe, in the greater part of those parishes which pay what is called a modus, in lieu of all other tithes, is a tax of this kind. It is well known, and has often been lamented, even by the clergy themselves, that this method of raising a revenue for their subsistence, is a continual source of dispute between the clergy and their parishioners, and contributes to obstruct the usefulness of their ministry. In Holland, and some other Protestant countries, the civil magistrates have adopted what some would have thought a better plan, by allowing their ministers a fixed stipend, paid out of the public funds. The custom of paying tithes, or of offering a tenth of what a man enjoys, has not only been practised under the old and the new law, but we also find something like it among the heathens. Xenophon, in the fifth book of the expedition of Cyrus, gives us an inscription upon a column, near the temple of Diana, by which the people were warned to offer the tenth part of their revenues every year to that goddess. The Babylonians and Egyptians gave their kings a tenth of their revenues. (See Aristotle, in his Economics, lib. ii., Diodorus Siculus, lib. v., and Strabo, lib. xv.) Afterwards the Romans exacted of the Sicilians a tenth of the corn they reaped; and Appian tells us, that those who broke up, or tilled, any new grounds, were obliged to carry a tenth of their produce to the treasury. The Romans offered a tenth of all they took from their enemies to the gods; whence the name of Jupiter Prædator: the Gauls, in like manner, gave a tenth to their god Mars, as we learn in the Commentaries of Cæsar. Authors have been perplexed to find the origin of a custom established among so many people of different manners and religions, to give a tenth to their kings, their gods, or their ministers of religion. Grotius takes it to arise hence, that the number ten is the most known, and the most common, among all nations, by reason of the number of fingers, which is ten. On this account, he thinks the commandments of God were reduced to ten, for people to retain them with greater ease; and the philosophers established ten categories, &c.

TITIAN, OF TIZIANO VERCELLI, one of the most distinguished of the great Italian painters, was born at Capo del Cadore, in the Alps of Friuli, in 1480. His early indication of talent for the arts of design induced his parents to place him under Sebastiano Zuccati of Trevigi, and subsequently under Giovanni Bellini of Venice. He soon made an extraordinary proficiency, and attained so exact an imitation of his master's style, that their works could scarcely be distinguished. This style, however, was stiff and dry, so that when the young artist had seen the performances of Giorgione, which were of a more free and elegant character, he quitted his former master, and soon, by his facility, excited envy in his new one. At the same time, he by no means neglected other branches of study, but made so great a progress under proper instructers, that at the age of twenty-three he was celebrated as one of the most promising poets of the day. With great judgment, however, he devoted himself to the pursuit for which he felt the most decided predilection, and attained to great perfection in landscape, portrait, and history. He was particularly remarkable for his accurate observation and faithful imitation of nature, as regards the tones and shades of coloring: his taste in design was less conspicuous; and it is in portraits and landscapes that he is deemed unrivalled. Indeed, in the opinion of Mr. Fuseli, he is to be regarded as the father of portrait painting, as relates to resemblance, character, grace, and tasteful costume. His principal residence was at Venice, though he occasionally accepted invitations from princes to their courts. At Ferrara, he executed the portraits of the duke and duchess, also that of Ariosto, then a resident there. He was sent for to Rome by cardinal Farnese, and attended Charles V at Bologna, who was so pleased with the portrait which he made of him, that he conferred on him the order of knighthood, and granted him a pension, which was afterwards augmented by Philip II. Most of the princes and leading men of the day were ambitious of being painted by him, so that his pictures are doubly valuable as portraits of eminent individuals and for beauty of execution. He resided some time both in Spain and Germany; but his home was Venice, where he lived in great splendor, and maintained the rank due to his genius. He retained the spirit and vigor of youth to the advanced age of ninety-six, and then died of the plague, in 1576. This

great painter had his weaknesses, the chief of which was an extreme jealousy of rival excellence, which rendered him ungenerous to Tintoretto, and even to a brother of his own. He is the first of all colorists, but less eminent in other respects. In general, his male forms are less elastic than muscular, while his females partake too much of the fair, dimpled, soft, Venetian figures, which are too full for elegance. He left two sons, one of whom obtained preferment in the church; the other became a distinguished painter, but being addicted to alchemy, wasted his patrimony and neglected his art. Of the historical pictures of Titian, two are peculiarly excellent, a Last Supper in the Escurial, and Christ crowned with Thorns in a church at Milan. The engravings from his pictures, including landscapes and pieces, cut in wood, amount to more than six hundred.

TITICACA; a lake in Bolivia, 240 miles in circuit, and 400 feet in depth. The water, though neither salt nor brackish, is muddy, and nauseous to the taste. It contains several islands; one was anciently a mountain, levelled by order of the incas. It gave to the lake its own name of Titicaca, which, in the Indian lauguage, signifies a mountain of lead. Lon. 69° 56′ W.; lat. 16° 10′ S.

TITLE; one of the various significations of this word is a term by which the rank or office of an individual is denoted. In the articles Counsellor, Majesty, and Ceremonial, the extreme to which the Germans have gone in attaching titles to every office, and even extending the same to the wife of the officer, is treated, and several curious examples are given. In England and the U. States, no title is given to civil officers, except as a matter of courtesy or of convenience, to distinguish between individuals of the same name. In some parts of the U. States, some such means of distinction are required by the commonness of particular names, many more individuals being to be found with the same surname, than, usually, in European countries. But the cases in which an individual, holding a civil office, are addressed by an official designation, are very few. With military titles, however, the case is different. Having little of the reality of military distinction, we seem disposed to make the most of the semblance, and generals, colonels, and captains, swarm throughout the land. Every traveller has his fling at the military dignitaries whom he meets behind the bar of a tavern, or on the box of a

stage-coach. In some places, it is even an ordinary vulgarism to give the title of captain to strangers. There are also certain terms of courtesy used in the superscription of letters, the principal of which (to say nothing of the chivalric term of esquire) are the reverend, addressed to clergymen, and the honorable, to judges, members of congress, and the higher branch of the state legislatures. These will, probably, before long, share the fate of other anti-republican distinctions. The governor and lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts are the only public functionaries in this country who are provided by law with titles of honor, the constitution of that state having given to the former the title of his excellency, to the latter that of his honor. The Germans, having so enormous a mass of titles, have divided them into titles of rank (Standestitel), e. g. those of princes, nobles, &c., by which they are distinguished from commoners; titles of honor, as excellency, grace, highness; and titles of office, as professor, counsellor, superintendent. The holders of this latter class of titles are subdivided into real (as real counsellor, &c.), when actually possessed of the office denoted, and titular, when they have merely the title of an office, as, for example, so many counsellors of legation, court-counsellors, &c. Almost all monarchs assume titles taken from countries over which they have no sway. In some cases, this originates from a real or supposed claim of the crown upon the country in question; in some, the sovereignty asserted may be actually exercised, under certain circumstances, e. g. the king of Prussia calls himself duke of Mecklenburg, because, under certain circumstances, the government of that country would devolve upon him. In some cases, it is a mere pompous form; for instance, the emperor of Austria calls himself king of Jerusalem, and the king of Portugal king of the navigation, conquest and commerce of Ethiopia, Arabia and India. Generally, monarchs have a less and a great or full title, just as they have two coats of arms. That epithet which is added to the word majesty, in the case of the different sovereigns of Europe, is generally called the predicate. epithets are, Most Christian (q. v.), for France; Catholic (q. v.), for Spain; Most Faithful, for Portugal; Apostolic (q. v.), for Hungary. 2. Title signifies the right of a person to some particular thing. 3. The heads of the various chapters in the corpus juris (q. v.), and other law books, &c., are called titles.

These

TITMOUSE (parus). The birds of this genus are of sinall size, but robust and muscular. The beak is thick at the base, short and stout; the feet strong, especially the hinder toe. The head is remarkable for the solidity and thickness of the bones of the skull. They eat all kinds of food, but more particularly insects and worms, in search of which they fly perpetually from branch to branch, examining every crevice, and clinging in every variety of posture, often with the head downwards. They do not spare young or weaker birds, when sick, or entangled in snares, but pierce the cranium by blows with the beak, for the purpose of feeding on the brain; neither do they hesitate to attack birds much stronger than themselves. Notwithstanding their pugnacious disposition, they live in small scattered flocks. Most of them build in hollow trees, and are remarkable for their fecundity among birds of their size, some laying eighteen or twenty eggs. We have only two species in the U. States. The black-capt titmouse, or chick-a-dee, is the most familiar. The crested titmouse is larger and more uniform in its colors.

TITUS, a disciple of St. Paul, who addressed to him a letter, was born of pagan parents, but, after his conversion, became the faithful companion of the apostle. He was employed by St. Paul on several missions, and sent to Crete to organize and govern the church in that island, where he died at an advanced age. TITUS VESPASIANUS, a Roman emperor, born A. D. 40, was the eldest son of the emperor Vespasian. He was educated at the court of Nero, with Britannicus (q. v.), and was the intimate friend of that unhappy prince. Titus first served as a tribun in Germany and Britain, and won general favor and esteem by his courtesy of manners, his courage, and his military genius. After his return to Rome, he occupied himself with the practice of law, and managed several cases with much skill. While yet quite young, he married the daughter of a Roman knight, and, on her death, united himself in a second marriage with a noble Roman lady, whom he repudiated, after she had borne him a daughter. He then served as questor with reputation, and, on the expiration of his term of office, accompanied his father. in the war against the Jews as commander of a legion. When Galba ascended the throne, Titus was sent by his father to declare his adhesion to the new emperor, but, on the way, received the news

of his assassination. On the death of Otho, Vespasian determined to possess himself of the throne; and Titus was left to conduct the war in Judea. He took Jerusalem (A. D. 70), after a siege, during which it had been the scene of the most shocking sufferings and cruelties. The temple was destroyed in spite of his exertions to save it. In some respects, Titus displayed much humanity; but it is impossible to justify the crucifixion, by his orders, of hundreds of the captives. After paying a visit to Egypt, he returned to Rome, which he entered in triumph, and was associated by his father in the government of the empire. His conduct thus far, if we may believe the accounts of Suetonius, had been marked by the most shameless excesses. He had chosen his associates among the most abandoned of the youthful courtiers, and indulged in the gratification of every impure desire and unnatural vice. From one so little accustomed to restrain his passions, the Roman people anticipated nothing but the misrule of a second Caligula or Nero; but, on ascending the throne (79), Titus disappointed these gloomy prognostications, and, relinquishing his vicious habits and debauched companions, became the father of his people, the guardian of virtue, and the patron of liberty. His reformation appeared to be sincere and perfect: the unworthy and dissolute youth assumed the character of the enlightened and munificent sovereign of a vast empire. All informers were banished from his court, and even severely punished; a reform took place in judicial proceedings; and the public edifices were repaired, and new ones erected for the convenience of the people. The memorable exclamation of Titus," Perdidi diem" (I have lost a day), which he is said to have uttered one day when no opportunity had occurred for doing any service or granting a favor to any one of his subjects, has been considered as strikingly characteristic of his sentiments and behavior, which procured for him the title of Amor et delicia generis humani (the delight of mankind). Two senators having engaged in a conspiracy against his life, he not only pardoned them, but also admitted them to his friendship. During his reign, there was a conflagration at Rome, which lasted three days; the towns of Campania were desolated by an eruption of Vesuvius (see Herculaneum); and the empire was visited by a destroying pestilence. In this season of public calamity, the emperor's benevolence and philanthropy were most