cule of the dogmatic philosophy. The fragments of Timon are contained in Langheinrich's De Timone Sillographo (1720), and Paul's treatise De Sillis Græcorum (Berlin, 1821). The ancients celebrate his industry, learning, and philosophical indifference to objects which excite the wonder, anxiety, grief and terror of the multitude.

TIMOROSO (Italian for fearful); a term applied to music, if the style of performance expresses awe and dread.

TIMOTHEUS, one of the most celebrated lyric poets and musicians of antiquity, who flourished at the court of Philip of Macedon, and his son Alexander, about the middle of the fourth century before the Christian era. He was a native of Miletus in Caria; and Pausanias attributes to him the completion of the lyre, by the addition of four new strings.

TIMOTHY, a disciple of St. Paul, was born in Lycaonia, Asia Minor, probably at Lystra, of a pagan father and Christian mother. He was yet young when he became associated (A. D. 51) with the great apostle in his ministry to the Gentiles; and he accompanied Paul to Thessalonica, Philippi, and Beræa. He was then left in the latter city alone; and, after spending some time there and at Thessalonica, during a violent persecution, he again joined his master at Corinth. After preaching the gospel in Macedonia, Achaia, and other places, he is supposed to have shared the captivity of Paul at Rome, and to have suffered martyrdom there during the reign of Nerva (A. D. 97). Two letters addressed to him by St. Paul form a part of the New Testament.

TIMOTHY GRASS (phleum pratense) is readily recognised by its long cylindrical spikes. It forms very excellent fodder, and horses prefer it to the other grasses; but it does not yield a very abundant crop. The root becomes bulbous in very dry grounds. It is a native of Europe, but is commonly cultivated, as well as naturalized, in the northern parts of the U. States.

TIMOUR, called also TIMOUR LENK (that is, the lame), and, by corruption, TAMERLANE, one of the most celebrated of the Oriental conquerors, was born in the village of Sebzar, in the territory of Kesh, about forty miles from Samarcand, in the year 1335. His ancestors were chiefs of the districts, and remotely related to the family of Gengis. At the time of his birth, great anarchy prevailed in his native country, which suffered from an invasion of the Getes, against whom he

acted, at the head of a body of his countrymen, and endured much diversity of fortune, until at length, being joined by a large body of volunteers, he was enabled to expel the Getes from Transoxiana. A dispute with his confederate and brotherin-law, Houssein, led to a brief civil war ; but the latter being defeated and put to death, a general diet, in 1370, seated him on the throne of Zagatai, upon which he made Samarcand the seat of his empire. His elevation, so far from satisfying his ambition, only opened further prospects to it; and, in a very few years, he reunited to Zagatai its former dependencies, Candahar and Carizme, overran Persia, passed as a conqueror through the whole course of the Tigris and Euphrates, reduced the Christians of Georgia, subdued the kingdom of Cashgar, and his emirs even crossed the river Irtish into Siberia. He also despatched an army into Western Tartary, under a fugitive prince named Toctamish, who, having established himself by its means, turned his arms against his benefactor, and obliged Timour to contend for his capital and empire. He was, however, finally defeated, and, in the pursuit, Timour captured a duke of Russia. In 1390, he invaded Hindoostan, and, rapidly penetrating to Delhi, soon completed the subjugation of the country. While on the banks of the Ganges, he was informed of great disturbances on the confines of Georgia and Anatolia, and of the ambitious projects of the Turkish sultan, Bajazet. He soon made arrangements to encounter this new enemy, whom, after a war of the most barbarous ferocity, which lasted two years and upwards, he encountered and conquered, and made captive, in the decisive battle of Angora, fought in 1402. Concerning the treatment of his prisoner, different accounts are given, the most common of which states that he was carried about by the conqueror in an iron cage, against the bars of which, he, in a few months, beat out his brains, in rage and despair. The conquests of the Tartar now extended from the Irtish and Volga to the Persian gulf, and from the Ganges to the Archipelago; and the want of shipping alone prevented him from crossing into Europe. His inordinate ambition was not yet satisfied, and he was making mighty preparations for an invasion of China, when death arrested his progress, at his camp at Otrar; and he expired in 1405, in the seventieth year of his age, having previously declared his grandson, Mahomet Jehan Ghiz, his successor. He

left fifty-three descendants, and a name much revered in the East, where his posterity, until lately, still preserved the title of the Mogul emperors, although the dominion had passed into other hands. Timour was tall and corpulent, with a wide forehead, large head, and pleasing countenance; but he was maimed in one hand, and lame on the right side. He conducted his government alone, and without favorites, but was, in the highest degree, fierce and fanatical in his religion; and, although no conquests were ever attended with greater cruelty, devastation, and waste of human life, he affected the title of a benefactor to mankind. Happily, his ambition was too gigantic for its consequences to last, and his dominions rapidly became divided as before. Yet he was not a mere barbarian conqueror, if the institutes are to be regarded as genuine, which, under the title of the Institutions of Timour, have been made known to us by a version from the Persian, executed by major Davy and professor White (Oxford, 1783). (See Gibbon's Decline and Fall, ch. 65.)

TIN was known to the ancients in the most remote ages. The Phoenicians procured it from Spain and from Britain, with which nations they carried on a very lucrative commerce. It appears to have been in common use in the time of Moses. It is rather a scarce metal, occurring in the earth in but two forms, namely, that of the peroxide, usually contaminated with the oxides of iron and manganese, and of a double sulphuret of tin and copper, the last of which, however, is an exceedingly rare mineral. (For a description of these ores, see the end of the present article.) Cornwall has been celebrated for its tin mines from the remotest ages; and it still continues the most productive country in this metal in all Europe. The mountains which separate Galicia from Portugal were also very productive of tin in ancient times, and still continue unexhausted. The mountains between Saxony and Bohemia have been wrought as tin mines for several centuries, and still continue productive. Mines of it occur in the peninsula of Malacca, in India, in Chile and in Mexico. The tinstone (or peroxide of tin) is the only ore used for obtaining metallic tin. The first process to which it is subjected is grinding. The ground ore is then washed, which removes the impurities; for the specific gravity is so high that it is easy to wash away the earthy matter, and even some of the foreign metallic ores with

which it is often mingled. But there are other bodies so nearly of the same specific gravity of the tin ore that they cannot be thus removed. The next process is roasting the ore in a reverberatory furnace: this expels the sulphur and arsenic with which the foreign matters were combined, and thus diminishes their specific gravity so much that they can now be washed away. The ore, thus freed as much as possible from foreign matter, is mixed with the requisite fuel and limestone, and heated strongly in a reverberatory furnace, so as to bring the whole into the state of fusion, which is kept up for about eight hours. The lime unites with the earthy matters still mixed with the ore, and flows with them into a liquid glass, while the coal reduces the oxide of tin to the metallic state. It falls by its weight to the bottom, and is, at the end of about eight hours, let out by tapping a hole in the furnace, which had been filled with clay. The tin thus obtained is still very impure. It is returned to the furnace, and exposed to a heat just sufficient to melt it. The pure tin flows out into a kettle, while a quantity of impurities remains behind. The tin in the kettle is kept in fusion and agitated, by which a quantity of impurity is accumulated on its surface. It is skimmed off, and the tin, now refined, is cast into blocks, weighing each about 300 pounds.-Tin, when pure, has a fine white color, like silver; and, when fresh, its brilliancy is great. It has a slightly disagreeable taste, and emits a peculiar smell when rubbed. Its hardness is between that of gold and lead. Specific gravity, 7.28. It is very malleable; tin leaf, or tin foil, as it is called, is about one thousandth part of an inch thick; and it might be beat out into leaves as thin again, if such were wanted for the purposes of art. Its ductility and tenacity are much inferior to those of most of the metals known in early times. It is very flexible, and produces, while bending, a remarkable crackling noise, sometimes called the cry of tin. It melts at 442° Fahr. When cooled slowly, it may be obtained crystallized in the form of a rhomboidal prism. After a short exposure to the air, it loses its lustre, and assumes a grayish-black color, but undergoes no further alteration. Neither is it sensibly altered by being kept under water. When tin is melted in an open vessel, its surface becomes very soon covered with a gray powder, which is an oxide of the metal. If the heat be continued, the color of the powder gradually changes,

and at last it becomes yellow. It forms two oxides. The protoxide has a black color, but when combined with water, is white. The peroxide is yellow, and, in certain circumstances, is transparent, and nearly white. The black oxide, or protoxide, may be obtained by dissolving tin in muriatic acid till a saturated solution is obtained, precipitating the liquid by means of carbonate of soda, and collecting the precipitate on a filter, washing and drying it at a temperature not exceeding 1800 Fahr. By this process a white powder is obtained, which is a hydrated protoxide. It requires to be raised to a red heat in a glass retort to expel the water, after which it is a black powder, devoid of lustre, tasteless, and insoluble in water. When heated in the open air, it takes fire, burns brilliantly, and is converted into peroxide. It is distinguished from the peroxide of tin not only by its color, but by being insoluble in ammonia and in carbonate of potash. The other oxide exists abundantly in nature, though rarely free from admixture with iron. When pure, its color is yellow. It is translucent, or almost transparent, and crystallizes in octahedra with square bases. Specific gravity 6.6. It is insoluble in all acids, until it has been fused with an alkali. Tin combines with chlorine in two proportions, forming the protochloride of tin, and the perchloride of tin. The former of these may be formed by heating together an amalgam of tin and calomel, or by evaporating to dryness the protomuriate of tin, and fusing the residue in a closed vessel. It has a gray color, a resinous lustre and fracture, and takes fire when heated in chlorine gas, and is converted into the perchloride. The perchloride of tin has long been known under the name of fuming liquor of Libavius, because it was discovered by Libavius, a chemist of the sixteenth century. It is usually prepared by mixing together an amalgam of tin and corrosive sublimate, and distilling with a very moderate heat. At first, a colorless liquor passes into the receiver, consisting chiefly of water: then the fuming liquid rushes all at once into the receiver in the state of vapor. It is colorless, like water, and very fluid. When three parts of it are mixed with one of water, the mixture condenses into a solid mass. It acts with great violence on oil of turpentine. There are compounds, also, of tin with bromine and with iodine. Tin also combines with phosphorus and with sulphur. One combination of tin and sulphur (the persulphuret) has long been known in chem

istry under the name of aurum mosaicum, or mosaic gold. It is formed by mixing twelve parts tin, seven parts sulphur, three parts mercury, and three parts salammoniac, and exposing the mixture to a strong heat, for eight hours, in a blacklead crucible, to the top of which an aludel is luted. The mosaic gold sublimes. It may also be formed by mixing together in a retort equal parts of sulphur and oxide of tin, and distilling. When pure, it is in the form of light scales, which readily adhere to other bodies, and which have the color of gold. Tin and arsenic may be alloyed by fusion. The alloy is white, harder and more sonorous than tin. Tin and antimony may be united together in various proportions. Equal parts of tin and molybdenum melt into a blackish-gray, granular, brittle, soft mass. Tin does not combine readily with iron. An alloy, however, may be formed by fusing them in a close crucible, completely covered from the external air. Tin plate is formed by dipping into melted tin thin plates of iron, thoroughly cleaned by rubbing them with sand, and then steeping them twenty-four hours in water acidulated by bran or sulphuric acid. The tin not only covers the surface of the iron, but penetrates it completely, and gives the whole a white color. Tin and zinc may be easily combined by fusion. This alloy is often the principal ingredient in the compound called pewter. Lead and tin may be combined in any proportion by fusion. This alloy is harder, and possesses much more tenacity than tin; and these qualities are at a maximum when the alloy is composed of three parts of tin and one of lead. The presence of tin seems to prevent, in a great measure, the noxious qualities of the lead from becoming sensible when food is dressed in vessels of this mixture. This result is often employed to tin copper vessels; and the noxious nature of lead having raised a suspicion that such vessels, when employed to dress acid food, might prove injurious to the health, Mr. Proust was employed by the Spanish government to examine the subject. The result of his experiments was, that vinegar and lemon-juice, when boiled long in such vessels, dissolve a small portion of tin, but no lead, the presence of the former metal uniformly preventing the latter from being acted on. The vessels, of course, are innocent. What is called ley pewter is often scarcely any thing else than this alloy. Tin foil, too, is almost always a compound of tin and lead. It is

in the formation of these alloys that tin is principally employed. Its oxides are used in enamelling, and to polish the metals; and its solution in nitro-muriatic acid is an important mordant in the art of dyeing, rendering several colors, particularly scarlet, more brilliant and perma

nent.

Tin Ores. These are but two in number, tin ore and tin pyrites. The first of these occurs crystallized, and in a great variety of forms, but which may all be derived from an octahedron with a square base, the angle over the apex being 112° 10. The majority of the crystals have the general figure of a right square prism, with four-sided pyramids at each extremity. The cleavages take place parallel with the sides of this prism, and with both its diagonals. The crystals may be cleaved also parallel to the sides of the above-named octahedron, but with difficulty. The prisms are sometimes vertically streaked. Lustre adamantine; color various shades of white, gray, yellow, red, brown and black; streak pale gray; in some varieties it is pale brown; semitransparent, sometimes almost transparent, and at others opaque; brittle; hardness about that of feldspar; specific gravity 6.96. Tin ore presents itself in a great variety of compound or macled crystals. It also occurs reniform, rarely in botryoidal shapes, and massive, with a granular or columnar composition, the individuals being strongly connected, and the fracture uneven. The wood tin of the Cornish mines is a mere variety of tin ore. The following ingredients were found in a specimen of crystallized, and in a massive tin ore:

Crystallized. Massive. 99.00 95.00

0.25

5.00

0.75

0.00

Oxide of tin, Oxide of iron, . Silex, In its greatest purity, it contains nothing but oxide of tin. Alone, it does not melt before the blow-pipe, but is reducible when in contact with charcoal. It occurs disseminated through granite, also in beds and veins. It also occurs in pebbles, and is extracted in this shape from streamworks. The variety called wood tin has hitherto been found only in these repositories. There are but few countries in which the present species is met with in considerable quantities. These are Saxony, Bohemia, Cornwall, in Europe, and the peninsula of Malacca, and the island of Banca, in Asia. Within a few years, small crystals have been met with at Goshen, in Massachusetts, in a granite rock,

accompanied by tourmaline and spodumene. Tin pyrites, the other ore of tin, occurs massive, with a granular composition; fracture uneven, imperfectly conchoidal; lustre metallic; color steel-gray, inclining to yellow; streak black; opaque; brittle; hardness about that of fluor; specific gravity 4.35. Before the blow-pipe, sulphur is driven off, and the mineral melts into a blackish scoria, without yielding a metallic button. It is soluble in nitro-muriatic acid, during which the sulphur is precipitated. It consists of

It is found only at St. Agnes, in Cornwall,

TINCAL. (See Boracic Acid.)

TINCTURE; a solution of any substance in spirit of wine. Rectified spirit of wine is the direct menstruum of the resins, and essential oils of vegetables, and totally extracts these active principles from sundry vegetable matters, which yield them to water not at all, or only in part. It dissolves, likewise, the sweet, saccharine matter of vegetables, and generally those parts of animal bodies in which their peculiar smell and taste reside. The virtues of many vegetables are extracted almost equally by water and rectified spirit; but in the watery and spirituous tinctures of them there is this difference, that the active parts in the watery extractions are blended with a large proportion of inert gummy matter, on which their solubility in this menstruum in a great measure depends, while rectified spirit extracts them almost pure from gum. Hence, when the spirituous tinctures are mixed with watery liquors, a part of what the spirit had taken up from the subject generally separates and subsides, on account of its having been freed from that matter, which, being blended with it in the original vegetable, made it soluble in water. This, however, is not universal, for the active parts of some vegetables, when extracted by rectified spirits, are not precipitated by water, being almost equally soluble in both menstrua.

TINDAL, Matthew, LL. D., a controversial writer, born about 1657, in Devonshire, where his father was a clergyman, was admitted of Lincoln college, Oxford, in 1672, elected a fellow of All Souls' college, and afterwards became a doctor of law. At the commencement of the reign of James II, he turned Roman

Catholic, but, in 1687, he returned to the church of England. Having concurred in the revolution, he was admitted an advocate, and sat as a judge in the court of delegates. He published several pieces, political and theological, among which were a Letter to the Clergymen of the two Universities, on the subject of the Trinity and Athanasian creed, and a treatise entitled the Rights of the Christian Church. This work excited a considerable sensation among the high church clergy, who attacked it with great animosity. Tindal published a defence, the second edition of which the house of commons ordered to be burned by the common hangman, in the same fire with Sacheverel's sermon, thus treating the disputants on each side in the same manner. In 1730, he published his Christianity as old as the Creation, or the Gospel a Republication of the Religion of Nature, in which his object was to show that there neither has been, nor can be, any revelation distinct from what he terms the internal revelation of the law of nature in the hearts of mankind. He died in 1733, leaving, in manuscript, a second volume of Christianity as old as the Creation, the publication of which was prevented by doctor Gibson, bishop of London. His nephew, Nicholas, born in 1687, fellow of Trinity college, Oxford, published a translation of Rapin's History of England, with a continuation. (See Rapin.)

TINDAL, William, also named Hitchins, a martyr to the reformation, born in 1500, near the borders of Wales, was educated at Oxford, where he imbibed the doctrines of Luther. Bearing an excellent character for morals and diligence, he was admitted a canon of Wolsey's new college of Christ-church; but, his principles becoming known, he was subsequently ejected. He then withdrew to Cambridge, where he took a degree, and soon after went to reside as tutor in Gloucestershire. While in this capacity, he translated Erasmus's Enchiridion Militis Christiani into English; but, in consequence of his opinions, articles were preferred against him before the chancellor of the diocese, and he received a reprimand. He then accepted of a retreat in the house of an alderman of London, where he employed himself in preparing an English version of the New Testament. England not being a place where such a work could with safety be effected, he proceeded to Antwerp, where, with the assistance of John Fry, and one Roye, a friar, he completed his work, which was

printed in that city, in 1526, 8vo., without a name. The greater part was sent to England, which produced great alarm among the church dignitaries; and the prelates Warham and Tunstall collected all they could scize or purchase, and committed them to the flames. The money received by the sale of the first edition in this way, enabled Tindal to print another edition, in conjunction with Miles Coverdale. He also translated the pentateuch, and subsequently Jonas, which formed the whole of his labors on the Scriptures, although others have been ascribed to him. He then returned to Antwerp, where he took up his residence with an English merchant. Henry VIII employed a wretch of the name of Phillips to betray Tindal to the emperor's procurator; and, in 1536, he was brought to trial upon the emperor's decree at Augsburg, where he was condemned to the stake, which sentence he quietly endured, being first strangled and then burnt. His last words were, "Lord, open the king of England's eyes!" Tindal's translation of the Scripture is highly esteemed for perspicuity and noble simplicity of idiom.

TINO (anciently Tenos); an island of the Grecian Archipelago, forming one of the group of the Cyclades, and consisting of a long, mountainous ridge, between Myconos and Andros, from which it is separated by a narrow channel. It contains 66 villages and 25,000 inhabitants, on 80 square miles. It is well cultivated by means of terraces, and produces abundance of silk, corn and fruit. Silk is the principal commodity. There are four monasteries on the island, and the church of the Evangelist, recently erected, has a miraculous image of the Virgin Mary, found there in 1823, which is much visited by pilgrims. Part of the revenues support a classical school established in 1825. The capital, St. Nicholas, on the western side of the island, was the residence of the European consuls, before the Greek revolution. Tenos, the ancient capital, one of the oldest cities of the Greeks, lay near a sacred forest, in which was a temple of Neptune.

TINTORETTO; the surname of a Venetian historical painter, Giacomo Robusti, born at Venice, in 1512, died in 1594. His father was a dyer (in Italian, tintore), whence his surname. Tintoretto studied under Titian, who was so jealous of his powers that he dismissed him from his school. He therefore pursued his studies without any director, and endeavored to unite his master's coloring with the design