that the Greeks meditated the destruction of the bridge, and thus hastened his retreat out of Greece. Artifice and cunning, which now too often displayed themselves in acts of injustice, were leading traits in his character. While he besieged Andros, he extorted contributions of money from the neighboring islands, by threats of invasion, and applied it to his own purposes. Another time, while he lay with a fleet at Pegasa, in Magnesia, he announced to the Athenians that he had a proposition to make to them, the execution of which would be highly advantageous to the state, but that he could not deliver it in public. Aristides was therefore sent to receive it in private. He declared to the citizens that the project of Themistocles was in the highest degree advantageous, but was equally unjust; and it was therefore voted not to adopt it. The plan of Themistocles was to burn all the ships of the fleet except those of the Athenians, and thus to give Athens the dominion of the sea. The victory of Salamis had raised the fame of Themistocles throughout all Greece to the highest pitch; and his services were acknowledged and rewarded, not only by his native city, but by the other states. After Athens was rebuilt, Themistocles proposed that all the citizens should be admitted to participate in the government, and that the archons should be chosen from the whole body of the people with out distinction. This proposition was adopted; but his plan of fortifying Athens, so as to render it secure against surprise, although received with favor by the Athenians, aroused the jealousy of the Lacedæmonians. They accordingly opposed the design, under the pretext that, if it should again fall into the hands of the Persians, it would serve as a strong-hold from which they would be able to conquer all the other Grecian states. The mistocles was sent to Sparta to conduct the negotiations on this matter. By various delays and artful evasions, he contrived to protract the final decision so long, that the Athenians were enabled, by great exertions, to complete their walls before the Spartans were aware of it. He then broke off the negotiations, and maintained that whatever was advantageous to one's country was just. It was by his influence, also, that the Piræus, the principal port of Athens, was constructed, and connected with the city by the Long Walls. While Themistocles was thus acquiring the gratitude of his country, he drew up on himself the hatred of the Spartans,

not only on account of the deception which he had practised upon them, but also by his obstructing their project to place themselves at the head of the Grecan states. They had proposed that all of those states which had not taken part in the Persian war should be excluded from the Amphictyonic council. Themistocles perceived that this measure, by excluding Thebes, Argos, and other powerful cities, from the Grecian confederacy, would give Sparta the ascendency. He succeeded in preventing its adoption; and the Lacedæmonians therefore leagued themselves with his enemies in Athens, to effect his overthrow. His own manners were by no means calculated to conciliate his enemies, and he was banished from Athens (B. C. 471) by the ostracism. While in exile at Argos, Pausanias, the Spartan, communicated to him a plot against the freedom of Greece, in the hope that Themistocles, under existing circumstances, would be induced to favor it. But he rejected the proposition, without, however, betraying Pausanias, after whose death the letters of Themistocles were found, which proved that the subject had been discussed between them. The Lacedæmonians accordingly accused him to the Athenians of being an accomplice in the conspiracy; and he was summoned by the latter to answer for his conduct in presence of the Grecian states. Fearing the result of such an investigation, Themistocles retired to Corcyra, to the inhabitants of which he had rendered important services. Not feeling secure here, he withdrew to Epirus, and afterwards sought the protection of Admetus, king of the Molossians, whom he had formerly offended. To assure himself a friendly reception, he seized an opportunity to throw himself upon his knees before the household gods of Admetus, with the king's son in his arms. But the ven- geance of the Spartans pursued him even here. They threatened to make war upon Admetus, if he should continue to protect the traitor, as they termed Themistocles. Admetus therefore supplied him with money, and sent him to a port on the gean sea, whence, after several adventures, he reached Asia in safety, aud finally arrived at the Persian court. price of 200 talents had been set on his head by the king Artaxerxes Longimanus; but he procured access to Artaxerxes, and received himself the 200 talents which had been offered for his head, with the promise of greater rewards, in case he would give information concerning the

A

state of Greece. The discourse which he is said to have addressed to the king on this occasion, and the letter to Artaxerxes, which is attributed to him, are undoubtedly spurious. He asked for time to learn the Persian language; and, in the space of a year, he was able to appear at the royal court like a native. His address and talents gained him the favor of Artaxerxes, and he was treated with the greatest distinction. The close of his life is enveloped in obscurity. Plutarch relates that, an insurrection having been excited in Egypt against the Persian government, by the intrigues of the Athenians, Artaxerxes prepared to send an army against Greece, and called upon Themistocles to fulfil his previous promises of assistance; and that, to avoid bearing arms against his country, Themistocles, after having sacrificed to the gods, and bade his friends farewell, took poison at Magnesia (B. C. 449), in the sixty-fifth year of his age. Thucydides merely says that he died of a disease. Plutarch and Cornelius Nepos have each left us a life of him. The twenty-one letters which are ascribed to him (edited by Schötten, 1710, and by Bremer, 1776) are proved by Bentley, in his Dissertation on the Letters of Phalaris, to be spurious.

THÉNARD, Louis Jacques, a celebrated chemist, was born in 1777, at Louptière, near Nogent sur Seine. He early applied himself sedulously to the study of chemistry, and to making experiments, and, at the age of twenty, was chemical teacher in the principal public laboratories of Paris, and at the polytechnic school. He also contributed to various scientific journals, and, by that means, widely extended his reputation. When he was twenty-six, he was made professor of chemistry in the college of France, and, not long after, was received into the institute, in the place of Fourcroy. He is particularly distinguished for his skill and ingenuity in conducting experiments. His works are Recherches physico-chimiques (2 vols., 1816), and Traité élémentaire, théorique et pratique (4 vols., 1818; 5th ed., 1827, 6 vols.). He is also author of numerous treatises in the Annales de Chimie, and in the Transactions of the Society of Arcueil, and is likewise one of the editors of the Journal de Physique. At the time of the coronation of Charles X, he was created

baron.

THEOBALD, Louis, a miscellaneous writer, was the author of various works, critical, poetical and dramatic, but merits remembrance only as a commentator on

Shakspeare, being the first who properly referred to the books and learning of that great dramatist's time. After publishing, in 1726, a work entitled Shakspeare Restored, he gave an edition of that author, which immediately followed the publication of that of Pope, from whom, although in correspondence with him, he concealed his design; hence his place as the hero of the Dunciad. Besides twenty dramatic pieces written by himself, he produced on the stage, in 1720, a tragedy entitled the Double Falsehood, which he attributed to Shakspeare, but which, in the opinion of doctor Farmer, belongs to Shirley. He died in 1744.

THEOCRACY (from Ocos, God, and paros, power) is that government of which the chief is, or is believed to be, God himself, and the laws the conimandments of God. The priests, in such a government, are the promulgators and expounders of the divine commands, the representatives of the invisible Ruler, who, however, can also call other persons to this dignity. (See Hebrews, and Moses.) In early periods, in which belief predominates over the spirit of investigation, theocracy will often enjoy more authority than other forms of government. The human and divine are yet mixed, and the law is considered as sent from above.

THEOCRITUS, the chief of pastoral poets, was born at Syracuse, and flourished about B. C. 280. Having gone to Egypt, he was treated with much distinction by Ptolemy Lagus and Ptolemy Philadelphus, but afterwards returned to Syracuse, where he is said to have been put to death by Hiero II, on account of some offensive expressions. We have under his name thirty idyls, or pastoral poems, of which, however, several are probably by other authors. Although he is one of the oldest idyllic poets whose works are known to us, he is not to be considered the first who wrote in this manner, which originated, and was carried to perfection, in Sicily. Most of his idyls have a dramatic form, and consist of the alternate responses of musical shepherds. Writing in the Doric dialect, which is peculiarly adapted to the simplicity of rural life, his language is strong and harmonious. The best editions of his works (which are usually joined with those of Moschus and Bion) are Reiske's (Leipsic, 1765), Warton's (Oxford, 1770, 2 vols., 4to.), Valkenaer's (Leyden, 1773, 1779, 1781 or 1810), Kiessling's (Leipsic, 1819), Scheefer's (1809-1812). Elton's Specimens of the Classic Poets (3 vols., 8vo., 1814) contains

translations from Theocritus in English

verse.

THEODICEA (from ecos, God, and dikatow, I acknowledge as right, vindicate); a vindication of the Deity in respect to the organization of the world, and the freedom of the human will. The word is not happy, as God does not need a defence: a theodicæa is rather a defence of theism against atheism, which Leibnitz first undertook on a broad scale, by publishing, in French, in 1710, his Essai de Theodicée (Essay towards a Theodicæa), respecting the Goodness of God, the Liberty of Man, and the Origin of the Bible. In this work Leibnitz maintained the notion that God had chosen, among all possible worlds, the most perfect. This was called optimism (q. v.), and gave rise to much discussion until the second half of the eighteenth century. Voltaire attacked it with the weapons of wit in his Candide. Plato, St. Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, and, among later writers, particularly Campanella, have attempted to reconcile human liberty and evil with the power and holiness of God. J. J. Wagner has published a new Theodicæa (Bamberg, 1809). Every theodica must lead to teleology. (q. v.)

THEODOLITE. This instrument serves to measure angles between heavenly bodies, as well as objects on the earth, with great accuracy. The theodolite consists of two concentric horizontal circles, the inner of which has, at the ends of one of its diameters, two perpendicular columns, on which rests the horizontal axis of a small meridian telescope. The vernier (q. v.) of the inner circle is made fast to an arbitrary division line of the outer one, and both circles are moved together with the telescope, until the object sought for appears in its field. The outer circle is now fixed, and the inner one is turned round, until the telescope strikes the second object, whose angular distance from the first is to be measured. The inner circle is now fastened to the outer, and, by means of the micrometer screw, the thread of the telescope is brought exactly upon the object. The arc which the vernier of the inner circle has described on the outer one, now measures the angle which the two objects make at the common centre of the two circles. Of late, several improvements have been made in this instrument.

THEODORA; empress of the East, the wife of Justinian, famous for her beauty, intrigues, ambition, and talents. Her father was the keeper of the beasts for

public spectacles at Constantinople, and she herself was a dancer at the theatre, and a courtesan notorious for her contempt of decency, before her elevation to the throne. Justinian saw her on the stage, and made her his mistress during the reign of his uncle Justin, whose consent he at length obtained for his marriage with Theodora; and a Roman law, which prohibited the marriage of the great officers of the empire with actresses, was repealed in her favor. She was crowned with Justinian in 527; and the death of Justin shortly after left her in possession of sovereign authority, through the blind partiality and weakness of her imperial consort. She made use of the power she had attained to raise from obscurity her friends and favorites, and to avenge herself on her enemies. According to Procopius, she continued to indulge herself in the most degrading sensuality after she became empress; and if the disgusting detail which he gives of her crimes is to be believed, seldom, indeed, has a brothel been disgraced by scenes of more infamous profligacy than those exhibited in the palace of Theodora. With all her faults, however, this woman displayed courage and presence of mind in circumstances of difficulty and danger; for in the alarming sedition at Constantinople, 'n 532, her counsels animated Justinian, and induced him to forego his inglorious design of fleeing before the rebels, who were subsequently reduced to subjection by Belisarius. Theodora died of a cancer, in 548, much regretted by her husband. (See Gibbon's Decline and Fall, ch. xl.)

THEODORE, king of Corsica. (See Neuhof.)

THEODORIC, king of the Ostrogoths, surnamed the Great, descended of the royal Gothic race of the Amali, was born near Vienna, in the year 455. His father, Theodomir, was one of the three brothers who jointly ruled the Ostrogoths settled in Pannonia; and he sent him, when only eight years of age, to Constantinople as a hostage, to secure the conditions of a treaty between the Goths and the emperor Leo. After residing two years with that emperor, he was restored to his father, then sole monarch of the Ostrogoths, under whom he gave various indications of his warlike spirit and ability for command. On the death of Theodomir, in 475, he succeeded to the crown, and commenced a course which, after menacing the safety of the Greek empire, and Constantinople itself, terminated in an

expedition against Odoacer, who had assumed the title of king of Italy. After several bloody engagements, the latter was finally induced to yield, on condition that he and Theodoric should govern Italy with equal authority. The murder of Odoacer at a banquet soon followed this agreement; on which Theodoric caused himself to be proclaimed king of Italy a title that the emperor Anastasius was reluctantly obliged to sanction. However indefensibly he acquired dominion, he governed with extraordinary vigor and ability. He attached his soldiers by assigning them a third part of the lands of Italy, on the tenure of military service; while, among his Italian subjects, he encouraged industry and the arts of peace. He even improved the administration of justice, and, though a Goth, was so far from delighting in the destruction of public monuments, that he issued edicts to protect them at Rome and elsewhere, and assigned revenues for the repair of the public edifices. Able in peace, and victorious in war, he maintained the balance of the West until it was overthrown by the ambition of Clovis, who slew Alaric, the Visigoth king, the remains of whose family and property were saved by Theodoric, who also checked the victorious Franks in their further career. Like his ancestors, he was an Arian, but was indifferent to controversy, and never violated the peace or privileges of the Catholic church. The particulars of the government of this memorable prince, who shed a short-lived lustre on the Gothic name, are recorded in twelve books, by his secretary, the senator Cassiodorus, a man of learning, who induced his illiterate master to become a patron of letters. Towards the close of his reign, an intolerant edict of the Byzantine court against the Arians in its dominions, induced Theodoric, against his usual policy, to meditate a retaliation against the Catholics of Italy, which, however, was prevented from taking place by his death. It is to be lamented that an act of tyranny against two exemplary characters, Boethius (q. v.), and Symmachus, his fatherin-law, closed his career. These senators were both put to death, on the mere suspicion of an intrigue between a senatorial party and the imperial court. This cruel act had no sooner been perpetrated, than Theodoric was seized with remorse; and a fever ensued, which terminated his life in three days, in 526, the seventysecond year of his age, and fifty-second of his reign. The ordinary residence of this king was at Ravenna, above which city

his daughter Amalasuntha (left regent of Italy until the majority of one of her nephews) erected a splendid monument to his memory. (See Gibbon's Decline and Fall, ch. xxxix, and the article Goths.)

THEODOSIUS, surnamed the Great, a Roman emperor, was the son of a distinguished general of the same name, who was executed for the alleged crime of treason, at Carthage, in 376. He was born about 346, at Canca, in Galicia, or, according to some accounts, at Italica, near Seville. At a very early age, he obtained separate command; but, on the execution of his father, he sought retirement, until selected by the emperor Gratian, in 379, for his partner in the empire. To his care were submitted Thrace and the eastern provinces, which he delivered from an invasion of the Goths. This emperor distinguished himself by his zeal for orthodoxy and intolerance of Arianism, which he put down throughout the whole of his dominions. In the space of fifteen years, he promulgated the same number of edicts against heretics; and the office of inquisitors of the faith was first instituted in his reign. He liberated the provinces from the barbarians with great prudence and diligence, and, in the various warlike and other proceedings of his reign, showed himself an able and equitable monarch, except when under the influence of resentment or religious zeal. On the defeat and death of Maximus, he became the sole head of the empire, although he administered the affairs of the West in the name of Valentinian, the son of Gratian, then a minor. He passed three years in Italy, during which period the Roman senate, which still chiefly adhered to the old religion, begged permission to restore the altar of victory-a request which he at first was inclined to grant, until prevented by St. Ambrose, who also induced him to pardon some zealots for having burned a Jewish synagogue. In 390, a sedition took place in Thessalonica, the result of which has branded the name of Theodosius with great odium. The origin of the catastrophe was in itself very trivial, being simply the imprisonment of a favorite charioteer of the circus. This provocation, added to some former disputes, so inflamed the populace, that they murdered their governor and several of his officers, and dragged their mangled bodies through the mire. The resentment of Theodosius was natural and merited; but the manner in which he displayed it was in the highest degree detestable and inhuman. An invitation was

given, in the emperor's name, to the people of Thessalonica, to an exhibition at the circus, and when a great concourse of spectators had assembled, they were massacred by a body of barbarian soldiery, to the number, according to the lowest computation, of 7000, and to the highest, of 15,000. For this atrocious proceeding, Ambrose, with great courage and propriety, refused him communion for eight months; and the docile, and, it is to be hoped, repentant Theodosius humbly submitted. About this time, the pious emperor crowned his merits, as a foe to paganism, by demolishing the celebrated temple of Serapis, and all the other heathen temples of Egypt; and he also issued a final edict, prohibiting the ancient worship altogether. On the murder of Valentinian by Arbogastes, and the advancement of Eugenius in his place, the emperor carried on a war against the latter, which finally terminated in his defeat and death. Theodosius did not long survive this success; but after investing his sons, Arcadius and Honorius, with the Eastern and Western empire, he was carried off, at Milan, by a dropsical disorder, in January, 395, in the fiftieth year of his age, and sixteenth of his reign. He died possessed of a distinguished reputation, which was much confirmed by his services to orthodoxy and his docility towards the priesthood. He was doubtless a man of considerable abilities, and possessed many public and private virtues, which, however, will scarcely excuse the fierceness of his intolerance, or the barbarity of his anger and revenge. (See Gibbon's Decline and Fall, ch. xxvi, xxvii, and xxviii.) THEOGNIS of Megara lived between 560 and 470 B. C., at a time when the popular party had gained the ascendency in his native town. He and many others of the aristocratic party were in consequence banished. During his banishment, which he spent partly in Sparta, partly in Sicily, partly in Thebes, or immediately after his return to Megara, he wrote his maxims and moral precepts in elegiac verse. Their aristocratic tendency is explained by the circumstances of his life. They are among the most valuable remains of the gnomic poetry of the Greeks, and have recently been arranged and illustrated in the edition of Welcker (1826), in a new and ingenious way.

THEOGONY is the doctrine of the generation and descent of the gods, as drawn from the ancient mythuses. The most ancient Greek theogony known to us is that of Hesiod.

THEOLOGY. this volume.)

(See Appendix, end of

THEOLOGY, NATURAL, is the knowledge which we have of God from his works by the light of nature and reason.

THEOMANCY (from ecos, God, and payrsia, prophecy) was that species of prophecy in which a god himself was believed to reveal futurity. Oracles were considered as public institutions for prophesying at distinct places and periods; but the communications embraced under the head of theomancy were extraordinary predictions, not limited by any such restrictions. There were three classes of persons who considered themselves as particularly the subjects of such communications: I. the possessed, i. e. such as believed themselves possessed by some dæmon (q. v.); 2. enthusiasts (enthusiasta, theopneusta), who pretended to be seized by a certain enthusiasm with which a god had inspired them; 3. ecstatics, i. e. such as fell into ecstasies. They lay as if in a trance, and, when they recovered their consciousness, spoke of having witnessed the strangest things, which were considered as indicating that the soul, during the trance, had left the body, and gone into another world, to visit the abodes of the gods or the departed. Such fanatics or impostors have appeared, not only among the Greeks, but among all uncultivated nations, of whatever religion.

THEOPHANE; a daughter of Bisaltus, whom Neptune changed into a sheep to remove her from her numerous suitors. The god afterwards assumed the shape of a ram, and under this form had by the nymph a ram with a golden fleece, which carried Phryxus to Colchis.

μαι,

THEOPHANY (from Ocos, God, and pavo

I appear); a festival at Delphi, celebrated on the anniversary of the day when Apollo had revealed himself to the Delphians. At a later period, revelations and appearances of deities to particular individuals were so called, and, finally, the general manifestation of revelation in the world. (See Epiphany.)

THEOPHILANTHROPISTS (from

God, pidos, friend, and avowros, man); friends of God and man; the title assumed by a religious society formed at Paris during the French revolution. The object of its founders was to revive public religious ceremonies, which had altogether ceased during the reign of terror, without returning to the doctrines and rites of Christianity, which were incompatible with the deism professed by the theophilanthropists. In 1796, five heads