ent at the battle of Morgarten (q. v.), and is supposed to have lost his life in an inundation in 1350. Such is the story of William Tell, which, attested by chapels, by the designation of the rock on which he leaped, by paintings and other circumstances, has been called in doubt by many, but is sanctioned by John von Müller. Saxo Grammaticus relates a similar story of a Danish king, Harold, and a certain Tholko; but the tradition might have been transmitted from Germany to the north by means of the Hanse_towns.See Hagen's Northern Heroic Romances, in German (Breslau, 1814). There is one circumstance which may be considered sufficient to attest the truth of the main points of Tell's history. After the expulsion of the governors, and the demolition of their castles, it became customary among the Swiss to make pilgrimages to the place where Tell had leaped ashore; and in 1388, thirty years after his death, the canton of Uri erected a chapel (called Tell's chapel) on the rock upon which he had sprung, and caused a eulogy to be pronounced every year in memory of him. In the same year the spot was visited by 114 persons, who had been acquainted with Tell. All the old chronicles agree on this point; and Schiller, in his tragedy of William Tell, has accurately copied the accounts of Tschudi and Müller. See Balthasar and Haller's Defence of William Tell (1772, new ed., 1824), and Hisely's Dissertatio de Gul. Tellio (Gröningen, 1824).

TELLIER, François Michel le. (See Louvois.)

TELLIER, Michael le, a distinguished Jesuit, was born in 1643, near Père, in Lower Normandy. He studied in the Jesuits' college at Caen, and entered the society at the age of eighteen. In 1709, he was chosen confessor to Louis XIV. He was a bitter enemy of the Jansenists; and his first act was the demolition of the celebrated house of the Port Royal. He then forced upon the nation the bull Unigenitus. (q. v.) His violence was the cause of much of the odium which the Jesuits soon after experienced, and paved the way for the abolition of their society. On the death of Louis, he was exiled, first to Amiens, and afterwards to La Flèche, where he died, in 1719.

TELLURISM. (See Magnetism, Animal.) TELLURIUM; the name of a metal discovered in 1782, and named by Klaproth from the earth in 1798. We shall first describe its ores. There are four -1. Native tellurium. It is of a tin-white color, passing into lead-gray, with a shining,

metallic lustre. It occurs in minute hexagonal crystals, possessed of regular cleavages; but their direction, owing to the minuteness of the crystals, has not been detected. It occurs also in crystalline grains, either aggregated, solitary, or disseminated. It yields to the knife, and is brittle; specific gravity 5.7-6.1. Exposed to the blow-pipe, it melts before ignition, and, on increasing the heat, it burns with a greenish flame, and is almost entirely volatilized in a dense white vapor, with a pungent, acrid odor, like that of horse-radish. It consists of tellurium 92.55, iron 7.2, gold 0.25. It has been found chiefly in Facebay, in Transylvania.-2. Graphic tellurium, or graphic gold. It is of a steel-gray color, generally splendent, but sometimes slightly tarnished externally. It occurs crystallized in the form of a right rhombic prism of 107° 44'. The crystals are commonly so arranged as to give to the whole row the appearance of a line of Persepolitan characters; specific gravity 5.7. Before the blow-pipe, on charcoal, it fuses into a dark-gray metallic globule, which finally is brilliant and malleable. It consists of tellurium 60, gold 30, and silver 10. It has been found only at Offenbanya, in Transylvania, in veins in porphyry.—3. Yellow tellurium. It is of a silver-white, passing into yellow and gray of different shades. It occurs in very small but well defined crystals, of which the primary form is a right rhombic prism of 105° 30. It possesses a bright metallic lustre. It is soft, and somewhat sectile; specific gravity 10.6. It consists of telluriurn 44.75, gold 26.75, lead 19.5, silver 8.5, sulphur 0.5. It has been found only at Nagyag, in Transylvania.-4. Black tellurium. It is of a color between iron-black and dark lead-gray. It is found crystallized in small tabular crystals, of which the primary form appears to be a right square prism. It yields to the knife with ease, and in thin laminae is flexible; specific gravity 8.9. It consists of

It melts when raised to a temperature higher than the fusing point of lead. If the heat be increased a little, it boils and evaporates, and attaches itself in brilliant drops to the upper part of the retort in which the experiment is made. It is, therefore, next to mercury and arsenic, the most volatile of all the metals. When cooled slowly, it crystallizes. Tellurium combines with only one proportion of oxygen, and forms a compound possessing acid properties. But, as it also possesses alkaline properties, it is called oxide of tellurium. It is formed when tellurium is burnt in a crucible, or before the blowpipe the white smoke evolved is the substance in question. It is also obtained by dissolving the metal in nitro-muriatic acid, and diluting the solution with a great quantity of water. A white powder falls, which is the oxide. It is easily melted by heat into a straw-colored mass of a radiated texture. It is composed of metal 100, and of oxygen 24.8. Tellurium burns spontaneously when brought into contact with chlorine gas. The chloride of tellurium is white and semi-transparent. When heated, it rises in vapor, and crystallizes. Iodine combines very readily with tellurium, when the two substances are brought into contact. Tellurium has the property of combining with hydrogen, and of forming a gaseous substance, to which the name of tellureted hydrogen is applied. It is formed by mixing together oxide of tellurium, potash, and charcoal, and exposing the mixture to the action of a red heat. It is transparent and colorless, and possesses a strong smell, resembling sulphureted hydrogen. It burns with a bluish flame, and oxide of tellurium is deposited. It is soluble in water, and gives that liquid a claret color. Tellurium appears to enter into combination with carbon. The compound is a black powder. It may be combined with sulphur by fusion.

TEMESWAR; formerly capital of the Bannat of Temeswar, which now forms a part of the kingdom of Hungary, now capital of the county of the same name in the circle beyond the Theiss, in Upper Hungary. It is situated on the river Bega, in a marshy and unhealthy district, is a royal free city, the residence of the imperial commander of the Bannat military district, and the see of a Greek bishop. Since 1718, when the Turks ceded the whole of the Bannat by the peace of Passarowitz (q. v.), the town has been inuch improved in appearance, and ex

tended; and the fortifications have also been strengthened, so that it is now one of the most important fortresses of the Austrian empire. It contains 11,000 inhabitants, chiefly Germans and Servians, or Rascians (q. v.), who are engaged in manufactures, and carry on a brisk trade.

TEMPE, VALE OF; a beautiful and celebrated valley of Thessaly, on the Peneus, not far from its mouth, having mount Olympus on the north, and mount Ossa on the south. It is about five miles long, and of unequal breadth. It was much celebrated by the ancient poets; but modern travellers were long perplexed to find in so rugged and terrific a spot as the defile of Tempe, where it is crossed by the great road, the object of their unqualified panegyric. The fact is, that the vale of Tempe is distinct from the gorge or defile, being situated a little to the south-west. "The scenery of this beautiful valley," says a traveller, "fully gratified our expectations. In some places it is sylvan, calm and harmonious, and the sound of the water of the Peneus accords with the grace of the surrounding landscape; in others, it is savage, terrific and abrupt; and the river roars with violence, darkened by the frowns of stupendous precipices." The woods which once appear to have adorned this celebrated region, have been much diminished in the service of the neighboring cotton works; but the mountains on each side are truly sublime. In the centre of this romantic seclusion stands Ambelakia, a town inhabited by Greeks, with some Germans, who have established considerable cotton manufactures.

TEMPELHOFF, George Frederic von; a German officer, and writer on military tactics, born in 1737. After having studied at Frankfort on the Oder, and at Halle, he entered into a Prussian regiment of infantry as a corporal, and, in that capacity, served in Bohemia, in 1757. He afterwards entered into the artillery, and distinguished himself at the battles of Hochkirchen, Kunnersdorf, Torgau, &c., and at the sieges of Breslau, Olmütz, Dresden, and Schweidnitz. At the close of the second campaign, he was made a lieutenant; and, after the peace of 1763, he continued his studies at Berlin, and published some mathematical works, and also the Prussian Bombardier (1781, 8vo.), in which he reduced the doctrine of projectiles to scientific principles. He afterwards published the Elements of Military Tactics, developing the manoeuvres and warlike operations of Frederic II. In

1790, he was promoted to a colonelcy; and, in the beginning of the revolutionary war with France, he had the command of all the Prussian artillery, and, in 1795, became chief of the third regiment of that corps. He died at Berlin, July 13, 1807. Tempelhoff published some important works besides those mentioned above, of which the best known is his History of the Seven Years' War in Germany, between the King of Prussia and the Empress Queen, &c. (1782-1801, 6 vols., 4to.), of which an English translation was made by general Lloyd.

TEMPERAMENTS; those individual peculiarities of organization, by which the manner of acting, feeling and thinking of each person is permanently affected. The differences of sex, race, nation, family, and individual organization, operate upon the character of every individual from the moment of his birth; and the last mentioned is by no means the least important. The ancients distinguished four temperaments the choleric or bilious, the phlegmatic, the melancholic, and the sanguineous, which derived their names from the supposed excess of one or other of the principal fluids of the human body-bile (xon), phlegm, black bile (pedawn, black, and xon), and blood (sanguis). Modern writers have added the athletic temperament and the nervous temperament. The bilious or choleric temperament is accompanied with great susceptibility of feeling, quickness of perception, and vigor of action, and therefore indicates an elevated state of the organization: rapidity and strength, a lively imagination, violent passions, quickness of decision, combined with perseverance and inflexibility of purpose, with a tendency to ambition, pride, and anger, but also to magnanimity and generosity of sentiment, characterize the bilious man. These moral characteristics are combined with a form more remarkable for firmness than grace, a dark or sallow complexion, sparkling eyes, and great muscular force. "These men," says an ingenious writer (Am. Quarterly Rev. for March, 1829), "are urged by a constant restlessness to action; a habitual sentiment of disquietude allows them no peace but in the tumult of business; the hours of crowded life are the only ones they value; they are to be found wherever hardiness of resolution, prompt decision, and permanence of enterprise, are required." The phlegmatic, lymphatic or cold-blooded temperament is the reverse of that last described: with little propensity to action, and little sensibility; no great bodily

strength or dexterity; rather a heavy look; the feelings calm; the understanding clear in a certain range, but never soaring into new regions, or penetrating deeply beneath the mysteries of the universe; and a disposition to repose or to moderate exertion, the phlegmatic man is free from excesses, and his virtues and vices are stamped with mediocrity. The sanguineous temperament indicates a lively susceptibility, with little proneness to action; promptness, without perseverance; a ready fancy; little depth of feeling, or thought; changeable, but not violent feelings and passions; and a tendency to voluptuousness, levity, fickleness of purpose, and fondness of admiration. The sanguineous are distinguished for beauty and grace, and the whole organization is characterized by the vigor and facility of its functions: they are the witty, the elegant, the gay, the ornaments of society. The melancholic temperament is characterized by little susceptibility, but great energy of action, reserve, firmness of purpose, perseverance, deep reflection, constancy of feeling, and an inclination to gloominess, to ascetic practices, and to misanthropy. The athletic temperament possesses, in some degree, the qualities of the sanguineous; but it is distinguished by superior strength and size of body, indicating the excess of the muscular force over the sensitive. The athletic man has less playfulness of mind, less activity of spirit, little elevation of purpose or fixedness of character; he is good natured, but if excited, ferocious. The nervous temperament admits of the most various modifications; it is characterized by the predominance of the sensitive part of the system, and the powerful action of the nerves. The mind is active and volatile, though not from fickleness, but from the rapidity of its associations, the quickness of its resolutions, and the readiness of its combinations. The temperaments are rarely found unmixed, as we have described them; but one or the other is usually predominant. Each has its advantages and pleasures, attended with some corresponding drawback. (See Kant's Anthropology, or Schulze's Anthropology, both in German.)

TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES. The remarkable success of these institutions in counteracting a vice of great seductiveness, and of the most ruinous tendency, demands for their history and present condition a somewhat extended notice. The mental excitement produced by the reception of certain vegetable substances into the system is, in its first stage, so

agreeable, that we cannot be surprised at finding some of them in use as far back, and as extensively, as our accounts of private manners reach. The fermented juice of fruits, as of the apple and grape, the intoxicating property of which latter is mentioned by Moses (Gen. ix, 21), probably was the most ancient, and is now the most common vehicle of the stimulating principle. The later Asiatics have found it in preparations from the poppy and the wild hemp, and the North American Indians in tobacco. The ancient Germans, according to Tacitus's account (De Mor. Germ., xxiii), obtained an intoxicating drink from wheat and barley; but the art of brewing, as at present practised, appears not to have been known in England before the end of the fifteenth century. Distillation, which furnishes far the most powerful agents of this kind, was invented by the alchemists in the course of their experiments in search of the elixir of life. The first known distinct mention of it (Encyclopédie Méthodique, articles Arts et Métiers, Distillateur, Liquoriste, as quoted in Sullivan's Address, Boston, 1832) occurs in the thirteenth century. Arnaud de Villeneuve, a chemist and physician, who died about the year 1300, writes: "Who would believe that one can draw from wine, by chemical process, that which has not the color of wine, nor the ordinary effects of wine? This water of wine is called by some the water of life (eau de vie, brandy); and it well deserves the name, since it is truly a water of inmortality. Already its virtues begin to be known. It prolongs one's life; it dissipates superfluous and vicious humors; it revives the heart, and perpetuates youth." Towards the end of the sixteenth century, the use of distilled spirits was introduced into England. Camden mentions them as having been adopted, in 1581, into the diet of the English soldiers in their campaigns in the Netherlands. A very heavy excise tax and duty on importations has not prevented the increase of their consumption in Great Britain till it has reached the amount of 40,000,000 of gallons annually. There is no evidence of their extensive use in North America during the first century after the settlement of the colonies. The exposures of the French war, and much more the hardships and disorders of the revolution, naturally tended to diffuse it. The men now upon the stage remember, from their childhood till within the last ten years, to have seen distilled spirits, in some form, a universal provision for the table at the principal re

past, throughout this country. The richer sort drank French and Spanish brandy; the poorer, West India, and the poorest, New England rum. In the Southern States, whiskey was the favorite liquor; and the somewhat less common articles of foreign and domestic gin, apple brandy and peach brandy, made a variety which recommended itself to the variety of individual tastes. Commonly at meals, and at other times by laborers, particularly in the middle of the forenoon and afternoon, these substances were taken simply diluted with more or less water. On other occasions, they made a part of more or less artificial compounds, in which fruit of various kinds, eggs, spices, herbs and sugar were leading ingredients. A fashion at the south was to take a draught_of whiskey flavored with mint soon after waking; and so conducive to health was' this nostrum esteemed, that neither sex, and scarcely any age, was exempt from its application. At eleven o'clock, while mixtures, under various peculiar names,— sling, toddy, flip, &c.,-solicited the appetite at the bar of the common tippling shop, the office of professional men, and the counting room, dismissed their occupants for a half hour to regale themselves at a neighbor's, or a coffee-house, with punch, hot or iced, according to the season; and females and valetudinarians courted an appetite with medicated rum disguised under the chaste name of Huxham's tincture, or Stoughton's elixir. The dinner hour arrived, according to the different customs of different districts of the country, whiskey and water, curiously flavored with apples, or brandy and water, introduced the feast; whiskey, or brandy, with water, helped it through, and whiskey or brandy, without water, often secured its safe digestion, not again to be used in any more formal manner than for the relief of occasional thirst, or for the entertainment of a friend, until the last appeal should be made to them to secure a sound night's sleep. Rum seasoned with cherries protected against the cold; rum made astringent with peach-nuts concluded the repast at the confectioner's; rum made nutritious with milk prepared for the maternal office; and, under the Greek name of paregoric, rum doubly poisoned with opium quieted the infant's cries. No doubt there were numbers who did not use ardent spirits; but it was not because they were not perpetually in their way. They were an established article of diet, almost as much as bread, and, with very many, they were in much

more frequent use. The friend who did not testify his welcome with them, and the master who did not provide bountifully of them for his servants, were held niggardly; and there was no social meeting, not even of the most formal or sacred kind, where it was considered indecorous, scarcely any where it was not thought necessary, to produce them. The consequence was, that what the great majority used without scruple, large numbers indulged in without restraint. Sots were common, of both sexes, various ages, and all conditions. And though no statistics of the vice were yet embodied, it was quite plain that it was constantly making large numbers bankrupt in property, character, and prospects, and inflicting upon the community a vast amount of physical and mental ill in their worst forms. The evil was too obvious and dreadful not to be the subject of much anxious observation; but endeavors to restrain it had hitherto taken no more effective shape than that of individual influence applied to individual cases. The idea of concentrating public sentiment upon it, in some form to produce more important results, seems to have been first developed, if not conceived, by some members of an ecclesiastical body, called the General Association of Massachusetts Proper. At a meeting of this association, in 1811, a committee, of which reverend doctor Worcester, of Salem, was chairman, was appointed to draught the constitution of a society whose object should be "To check the progress of intemperance, viewed by the association as an alarming and growing evil." Such a society was formed, consisting of about 120 members, in different parts of the state. It held its first meeting in 1813, and elected that eminent statesman, the late honorable Samuel Dexter, for its president. The first attempt of the society was naturally to collect facts towards a precise exhibition of the nature and magnitude of the existing evil, with the view of drawing public attention to it, and of directing endeavors for its removal. The reports presented, from year to year, embraced statements and calculations which were found to make out a case of the most appalling nature, such as to amaze even those whose solicitude on the subject had been greatest. In the year 1810, the federal returns showed 25,499,382 gallons of spirits of different kinds to have been distilled in the U. States, which quantity, to ascertain the consumption (no account, of course, being

made of what may have escaped the knowledge of the custom-house and the marshals), was to be increased by 8,000,000 of gallons imported, and diminished by 133,823 exported. The amount thus ascertained, namely, 33,365,559 gallons, was distributed among a population of 7,239,903 (white and black), returned in the census of the same year. This gives an average of more than four gallons and a half for the year to every man, woman and child in the U. States. The society continued to collect and present, from year to year, statistical statements of this kind; and the curiosity and alarm excited by them led to similar observations in different quarters, the most considerable of which we shall presently mention. Some further particulars of the deplorable state of things, as successively brought to light, or made probable, we will here set down, premising that, so far from the earliest rough statements and calculations appearing, on further investigation, to have been exaggerated, it was rather found that the authors of these had shrunk with incredulity from the conclusions which their reasonings seemed to authorize, and the facts continually grew more alarming as they were more exactly ascertained. In 1814, it was suggested, in a circular of the Massachusetts society, that not less than 6000 citizens of the Ů. States might die annually victims of intemperance. In 1830, from much more full data, the number was estimated at above 37,000. Facts were thought to justify the inference, in this latter year, that 72,000,000 of gallons of distilled spirits were consumed in the country (not far from six gallons, on an average, or a half a gill a day to each individual), and that the number of confirmed drunkards (apart from those in some stage of progress towards the fixed habit) fell not much short of 400,000. From computations founded on facts collected in particular districts, there appeared reason to believe that intemperance was responsible for three quarters or four fifths of the crimes committed in the country, for at least three quarters of the pauperism existing, and for fully one third of the mental derangement. According to a calculation of less satisfactory character, but not destitute of probability, the annual waste for distilled spirits, reckoning the cost to the consumer (at two thirds of a dollar the gallon), the loss of the labor of drunkards and prisoners, and the direct cost of their crimes and pauperism, amounted to a sum which, vested in an annuity for