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for some hours after the conclusion of the piece. After his return to London, Talma associated himself with some other young men, for the purpose of representing French plays, and displayed such brilliant powers as to attract the notice of distinguished individuals, who urged him to appear on the London boards. But circumstances led him to Paris, where he entered the royal school for declamation, and soon after (1787) made his début at the Théâtre Français in the character of Seide in Voltaire's Mahomet. He was received with applause, and from this moment devoted himself with zeal and perseverance to the study of his art. He sought the society of distinguished literati and artists, studied history for the purpose of becoming acquainted with the manners and customs of nations, and the characters of remarkable individuals, and made himself master of the attitudes, costumes, expression and drapery of the ancient statues. Talma rendered an important service to the French stage by introducing a reform in the costume. (q. v.) The revolution, which now broke out under his eyes, with all its scenes of violence and passion, its displays of exalted virtue, and its excesses of cruelty, contributed to develope his peculiar talent. Chenier's tragedy of Charles IX, or St. Bartholomew's, was brought forward at this time, and Talma studied the character of Charles in history, and his person in medals and portraits, and exhibited them with such truth and life, that his reputation as the first French tragedian was established beyond dispute. The principal parts which he created, or carried to the highest perfection, were Seide, Othello, Hamlet (those of Ducis), Sylla (or rather Napoleon, of Jouy), Regulus, the grand master of the templars, Charles IX, Charles VI (of Delaville), Manlius, and Orestes. He died at Paris in 1826.-See Moreau's Mémoires sur Talma (3d ed., 1827). Talma was the author of Reflexions sur Lekain et sur l'Art théâtral (1825). "Talma," says madame de Staël, "may be cited as a model of power, and of discretion in the use of it, of simplicity and true grandeur. He possesses all the secrets of the various arts: his attitudes recall to mind the fine statues of antiquity, and the expression of his face, and every look, ought to be the study of our best painters. There is in the voice of this man a magic which I cannot describe; which, from the moment when its first accent is heard, awakens all the sympathies of the heart; all the charms of mu

sic, of painting, of sculpture, and of poetry; but, above all, the language of the soul: these are the means which he uses to excite in him who listens, all the effect of the generous or the terrible passions. What a knowledge of the human mind he displays in the manner of conceiving his parts! He is the author himself, come again to realize, by his look, his accents, and his manner, the person he means to present to your imagination." His person is described as regular, but not striking, his voice full and agreeable, his countenance approaching the antique, and full of expression. These physical advantages were combined with a penetrating mind, a warm imagination, deep feeling, and great sensibility. It is well known that he was a great favorite of the emperor Napoleon, who treated him with much distinction, and loved to converse with him. Talma was buried, according to his own directions, without any religious ceremonies; and he likewise left orders that his children should be educated in the Protestant faith; unwilling that they should belong to a church which condemned his profession. His wife, previously known as Mlle. Vanhove, was a distinguished actress. She retired from the stage in 1810.

TALMUD (from the Hebrew lamad, he has learned); doctrine. It signifies, among the modern Jews, an enormous collection of traditions, illustrative of their laws and usages, forming twelve folio volumes. It consists of two parts, the Mishna and the Gemara. The Mishna is a collection of rabbinical rules and precepts, made in the second century of the Christian era. The whole civil constitution and mode of thinking, as well as language of the Jews, had gradually undergone a complete revolution, and were entirely different, in the time of our Savior, from what they had been in the early periods of the Hebrew commonwealth. (See Hebrews, and Jews.) The Mosaic books contained rules no longer adapted to the situation of the nation; and its new political relations, connected with the change which had taken place in the religious views of the people, led to many difficult questions, for which no satisfactory solution could be found in their law. The rabbins undertook to supply this defect, partly by commentaries on the Mosaic precepts, and partly by the composition of new rules, which were looked upon as almost equally binding with the former. These comments and additions were called the oral traditions,

in contradistinction to the old law or written code. The rabbi Juda, surnamed the holy, was particularly active in making this collection (150 B. C.), which received the name of Mishna (q. v.) or second law. The later rabbis busied themselves in a similar manner in the composition of commentaries and explanations of the Mishna. Among these works, that of the rabbi Jochanan (composed about 230 A. D.) acquired the most celebrity, under the name of Gemara (Chaldaic for completion or doctrine). This Mishna and Gemara together formed the Jerusalem Talmud, relating chiefly to the Jews of Palestine. But after the Jews had mostly removed to Babylon, and the synagogues of Palestine had almost entirely disappeared, the Babylonian rabbis gradually composed new commentaries on the Mishna, which, about 500 A. D., were completed, and thus formed the Babylonian Talmud.

TALUS, in mythology; a brazen image which Vulcan gave to Minos, or Jupiter to Europa. It was endowed with life, and had a single blood-vessel running from the neck to the heel, and closed with a brazen nail. Talus was the protector of Crete, and went three times daily around the island, to defend it against attacks. The fable says that he prevented the enemies of Crete from landing, by heating his body in fire, and then embracing them with his glowing arms. Other stories are also told of him, which seem to indicate that Talus was probably a brazen statue, serving as a beacon, placed by the Phoenicians on a promontory of Crete. Medea, by her arts, eventually destroyed Talus, when she landed with the Argonauts. (q. v.)-Another Talus is mentioned; a son of the sister of Daedalus, who invented the saw, compasses, and other mechanical instruments. His uncle became jealous of his growing fame, and murdered him privately; or, according to some, threw him down from the citadel of Athens. Talus was changed into a partridge by the gods. He is also called Calus, Acalus, Perdix, and Taliris.

TAMAHAMA. (See Tammeamea.) TAMARIND-TREE (tamarindus Indica); a large and beautiful tree of the East Indies, belonging to the natural family leguminosa. The leaves are pinnate, composed of sixteen or eighteen pairs of sessile leaflets, which are half an inch only in length, and one sixth in breadth. The flowers are disposed, five or six together, in loose clusters: the petals are yellowish, and beautifully variegated with red veins.

The pods are thick, compressed, and of a dull brown color when ripe. The seeds are flat, angular, hard and shining, and are lodged in a dark, soft, adhesive pulp. The tamarind-tree exists also in Arabia, Egypt, and other parts of Africa; but that of the West Indies is perhaps a different species, distinguished by the shortness of the pods, which contain two, three or four seeds only. In the West Indies, the pods are gathered in June, July and August, when fully ripe; and the fruit, being freed from the shelly fragments. is placed in layers in a cask, and boiling syrup poured over it till the cask is filled: the syrup pervades every part quite down to the bottom; and when cool the cask is headed for sale. The East India tamarinds are darker colored and drier, are more esteemed, and are said to be preserved without sugar. This fruit has an agreeable acid and sweetish taste, is refrigerant and gently laxative. A simple infusion in warm water forms a very grateful beverage, which is advantageously used in febrile diseases.

The Turks and Arabs carry the pods, prepared with sugar or honey, either green or ripe, in their journeys across the deserts; and they are found to constitute an agreeable and wholesome article of food.

TAMBOUR; a species of embroidery. The tambour frame is an instrument of a spherical form, upon which is stretched, by means of a string and buckle, or other appropriate means, a piece of silk, muslin, linen, &c., which is wrought with a needle of a particular form, and, by means of silver or gold, cotton or silk, into leaves, flowers, or other figures.

Tambour, in fortification; a piece of work formed of palisades planted close together and driven into the ground, for the purpose of enclosing an open work. Tambours are sometimes erected before the gates of a city, or fortified post.

TAMBOURINE, or TAMBOUR DE BASQUE; one of the most ancient musical instruments. Wherever we find Hebrew music mentioned, the tambourine or timbrel also appears. The triumphal song of Miriam, after the passage of the Israelites through the Red sea, shows how early vocal music was accompanied by such instruments and by dancing. The invention of the tambourine, or drum beaten by the hand, would seem naturally to have taken place very early, as it is very simple; and many domestic instruments would easily suggest it. How many objects do children turn into a drum! And, in fact, such instruments are generally found, even

among the rudest tribes. The use of the tambourine, on sacred or solemn occasions, has descended to modern times, from the Egyptian feasts of Bacchus. In the Bacchanalian songs of the Mænades, on the Thracian mountains, we find continual mention of the drums (kettle drums and tambourines). In the orgies, only the lyre and the flute were originally permitted to accompany the song; but when, according to the fable, Bacchus himself, attended by Satyrs, Fauns and Bacchanals, appeared at the festivals, they brought with them drums, sistrums, and horns. Those musical instruments which are played on by beating, and hence indicate the rhythm most distinctly, have always been very popular at festivals. Luther translated the Hebrew word toph by Pauke (drum). In English, it is timbrel. The Greeks call it rupravov; the Romans, tympanum; the Arabians, deff (tambour, in the East, is the name of the guitar); the Spaniards, adufe (a word of Arabic origin, and probably carried, with the instrument itself, by the Moors, to Spain). In the East, it was always played on by maidens at the feast and dance, and therefore cannot be compared to our drum. In the middle ages, we find this instrument mentioned among the many used by the Troubadours and minstrels. In those times, it was called tambour and cloquette, and appeared in every concert. The present tambourine consists of a wooden or brazen hoop, over which a skin is extended, and which is hung with bells. Sometimes the thumb of the right hand is drawn in a circle over the skin; sometimes the fingers are struck against it. Generally, the hoop has a hole, to give admission to the thumb of the left hand; on this the instrument is supported during the performance, which may be made very graceful by various movements of the body, on account of which the tambourine is generally an attribute of the muse of dancing. The larger tambourine is called tambour de Basque, because it is used in Biscay to accompany all the national songs and dances. Steibelt (a German) has recently composed pleasing and brilliant pieces for the pianoforte with the accompaniment of the tambourine.

TAMBRONI, Joseph, an Italian poet and historian, born at Bologna, in 1773. He studied in the university there; and, in 1794, was elected palæographer, or inspector of the archives of his native city. When the French invaded Lombardy, he attached himself to Marescalchi, whom

he accompanied to the congress of Rastadt and to Vienna, as secretary of the Cisalpine legation. On the return of the Austrians to Italy, Tambroni found an asylum in the mountains of Savoy; but he returned after the battle of Marengo and the foundation of the Cisalpine republic. He was then attached to the Italian legation at Paris, under his friend count Marescalchi; and, in 1809, he became consul at Leghorn, and two years after at Rome. On the fall of the imperial government, in 1814, he retired from public life, and engaged in conducting the Giornale Arcadico. Tambroni died at Rome, in 1824. Among his works are Compendio delle Storie di Polonia (2 vols.), Intorno alla Vita di Canova, besides many letters and poems.

TAMBRONI, Clotilda, sister of the preceding, distinguished for her acquaintance with Greek literature, was born in 1758, and, from her early years, displayed an invincible attachment for study, in consequence of which her parents afforded her the means of instruction. She was admitted into the Arcadian academy at Rome, the Etruscan academy at Cortona, and the Clementine at Bologna; and, in 1794, the professorship of the Greek language was bestowed on her, which she retained till 1798, when she was displaced because she refused to take the oath of hatred to royalty, required by the laws of the Cispadane republic. She was afterwards restored by Bonaparte; but the Greek professorship being at length suppressed, she retired to the bosom of her family. Her death hap-. pened June 4, 1817. Her works consist chiefly of poems written in Greek, among which is an elegy in honor of Bodoni, the celebrated printer.

TAMERLANE. (See Timour.)

TAMMEAMEA, or TAMAHAMA, king of the Sandwich isles, in the Pacific ocean, was one of those individuals who are destined to produce a great effect on the state of society around them. He belonged to the race of the native chiefs; and at the death of captain Cook, in 1780, he had arrived at manhood; but he had no concern in that event. Tirrioboo, the king of Hawaii, the largest of the Sandwich islands, having offended his principal officers, he was put to death, and Tammeamea was chosen to succeed him. He soon showed extraordinary talents for his situation; and it was a part of his policy to encourage the settlement of European mariners and others in his dominions. When captain Vancouver

visited Hawaii, Tammeamea put himself under the protection of that officer, as the representative of the king of Great Britain; and, as the price of his submission, he was assisted in building a fine vessel, which afforded a model for the construction of several more. Tammeamea thus formed a fleet, with which he conquered the adjoining islands, and traded to China. He subsequently erected a fort on the island of Oahoo, and obtained from the Russians some artillery; while, by encouraging the trading of his subjects with navigators, he added to his own wealth and importance as well as that of his people. This enterprising monarch died in March, 1819. Rhio Rhio, the son and successor of Tammeamea, having made a visit to England, together with his queen, in 1824, both their majesties died in London, after a few months' residence, in consequence of a disease arising from change of climate and habits of life.

TAN, TANA, TANIA; an ending common to a great many names in the Oriental languages, as well as those of Europe, signifying country or place possessed by; Mauritania (country of the Moors).

TANAIS. (See Don.)

TANCRED, with Godfrey of Bouillon, the soul of the first crusade, was born in 1078. History gives us no information concerning his father, a Sicilian or Italian marquis; but his mother was the sister of the celebrated Norman, Robert Guiscard, whose eldest son, Bohemond, was the friend and brother in arms of Tancred. (See Guiscard.) In 1096, the two heroes embarked for Epirus, and thence marched to Macedonia. Tancred was present in the van or the rear, wherever danger was to be found, and more than once saved the army from destruction in the snares of the Greeks. On the plains of Chalcedon he united his forces with those of Godfrey; and here they formed that compact which Tasso has celebrated in his Jerusalem Delivered. At the siege of Nice (1097), Tancred first appears among the heroes who directed the course of events, and in the battle of Dorylæum, in which his younger brother fell, he saved the army of the crusaders, when surrounded by 200,000 Seljooks. Godfrey's brother Baldwin and Tancred now advanced over the Taurus towards Jerusalem, a distance of nearly 1000 miles, through an unknown and desolate region, for the purpose of exploring the route. Tancred first penetrated through 12

VOL. XII.

the passes of the mountains, and obtained possession of Tarsus by capitulation. Baldwin followed him, and was faithless enough to take possession of the town ostensibly for his brother, but virtually for himself. Tancred, though exasperated at this act of treachery, nobly exclaimed, "Shall I stain my lance with the blood of my brethren ?" and, advancing to Memistra, took the place by storm. Baldwin attempted to repeat his perfidious act, and Tancred now suffered himself to be so far carried away by his resentment, as to turn his arms against him; but the quarrel terminated in the reconciliation of the chiefs. Tancred next marched against Antioch, the capture of which was delayed seven months, by the diseases, want of provision, and insubordination, which prevailed in the Christian army. The garrison left by the Crusaders in the city, was surrounded by a Persian army, which was defeated by Tancred. After Easter, in 1099, the crusaders set forward for the conquest of Jerusalem. Tancred took Bethlehem, and pressed forward to be the first to see the walls of the holy city. Immediately after his arrival before Jerusalem, he captured an advanced work, which is still called Tancred's tower. During the scenes of horror which attended the capture of Jerusalem (July 19, 1099), he conducted himself with humanity, and saved the lives of thousands of the enemy, at the peril of his own. For this he was accused of being an enemy to the priests and to religion! The sultan of Egypt was now advancing to attempt the recovery of Jerusalem, but was totally defeated by Tancred, with the loss of his camp, before Ascalon (August 12). Tancred captured Tiberias, besieged Jaffa, and, after the death of Godfrey, endeavored to effect the election of Bohemond as king of Jerusalem; but the unworthy Baldwin_obtained the throne, and Tancred, while engaged in the field against the emir of Damascus, was summoned to appear before the new king, on a charge of rebellion. secure in the attachment of his vassals, Tancred, now prince of Galilee, despised the base arts of Baldwin, and hastened to Antioch, whose prince, Bohemond, had been captured by the Turks. The city was equally threatened by the Turks and the false Greeks; but Tancred alternately made head against both, restored his friend to liberty, and, with the utmost disinterestedness, gave him back his territories. When Bohemond returned to Europe to obtain recruits, Tancred was

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left to protect Antioch, which was menaced at once from Aleppo and by the Greek armies. He was even obliged to encounter the attacks of Baldwin, count of Edessa, and Josselin de Courtenay. Bohemond died at Salerno, and his soldiers either dispersed or entered the service of the Greek emperor: still Tancred succeeded in forcing the Turkish sultan to retreat over the Euphrates. This was his last exploit. He died soon after, in 1112, in his thirty-fifth year. Tancred was the flower and pattern of chivalry. Tasso has immortalized him.-An account of his life may be found in Raoul de Caen's Gestes de Tancrède, and in Delabarre's Histoire de Tancrède (Paris, 1822). TANGENT, in general; every straight line which has one single point in common with, and lies entirely outside of, a curve (at least of every such curve as can be cut by a straight line in two points only). This is the geometrical tangent. In trigonometry, the name is applied particularly to that part of the tangent to the circle which stands perpendicular at the end of one of the radii, including a particular arc, and is cut by the prolonged radius passing through the other end of the arc (the secant). Trigonometrical tangents, used with the sine and cosine, &c., for the solution of triangles (see Trigonometry), have been calculated according to their relative value (i. e. with reference to a radius of a certain magnitude) for every arc; and these relative values, or their logarithms, are generally to be found in the trigonometrical tables, with the sines and cosines of the same arcs. How this calculation of trigonometrical tangents, in reference to sines, cosines and radii, is performed, may be easily understood by a mere comparison of the two similar triangles which originate when we draw these lines and the corresponding arc. The differential calculus gives a very simple method for calculating the tangents by means of the subtangents, under the name of the direct method of the tangents. To this direct method the higher analysis adds an inverted method, called the inverse method of tangents.

Tangential Force. In order to have a clear idea how the planets are made to revolve in consequence of the attraction which the sun, situated in one focus of their elliptical orbits, exercises upon them, we may imagine that they originally received an impulse urging them forward in a straight line. With this impulse the attraction of the sun (centripetal force;

see Central Forces) being united, the planet was thus made to describe the diagonal of a parallelogram, whose sides represent the directions of these forces. Às there is nothing to diminish the impulse which we have supposed originally given to the planet, it would continue its path in the direction of the diagonal; but the centripetal force, operating continually upon the direction which the planet has obtained, makes it change its direction' incessantly. In this way originates (as a diagram, drawn according to what we have said, clearly shows) a motion around, the centre of forces. (See Circular Motion, and Central Forces.) The planet has at each point of its path a certain tendency (the consequence of its previous motion; hence, properly speaking, the effect of its inertness) to continue its last received diagonal direction, and thus to recede from the centre of forces. To this tendency, the centripetal force, directed towards this point, is opposed. The centripetal force may again be divided into two forces, the first of which (the normal force) operates perpendicularly to the orbit, and only contributes to retain the planet in the same, in order to prevent the curved motion from degenerating into a straight one: the latter, however, coincides with the direction of the orbit self, and, therefore, only affects the velocity. This latter force is the tangential force, so called because the element of the curve coincides with the tangent. The doctrine of central forces is so important, because our imagination, unaided by theory, is almost incapable of conceiving a body which turns around another, exercising an attraction upon it, yet without ever coming in contact with the attracting body. But what has been said shows that a correct proportion of the centripetal force to the original impulse renders the contact of the body with the sun impossible. Generally, the endeavor of the planet to recede from the centre of forces, is called the centrifugal force; but can we, properly, call that a force which is evidently the effect of inertness? The original impulse may be compared to the first impulse which sets the pendulum in motion; after which, if we omit other influences, it would continue its oscillations for eternity, from the mere influence of gravity.

TANGIER, or TANJAH (anciently Tingis); a town of Morocco, situated at the west entrance of the straits of Gibraltar, thirty-eight miles south-west of Gibraltar; lon. 5° 50′ W.; lat. 35° 48′ N. The

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