man. The allusions are beautiful, the expressions tender and moving, and the piety of the authors is singularly remarkable. The Proverbs of Solomon are a divine collection of many admirable sentences of morality, wonderfully adapted to instruct us in our duty to God and The book of Ecclesiastes teaches us, in a very lively manner, the insufficiency of all earthly enjoyments to make a man happy. The Canticles or Song of Solomon, under the parable of a man's affection to his spouse, in very tender yet elegant expressions, shows us the ardent love of Christ to his church and people; and the Lamentations of Jeremiah contain a very mournful account of the state of Jerusalem, as destroyed by the Chaldæans. 3. ORATORY does not appear to have been cultivated by the Hebrews; although the sacred writers, following the impulse of their genius, have left such specimens in their writings, as the most distinguished orators might imitate with advantage. Want of eloquence was objected as a defect against the apostle Paul (1 Cor. i. 17.), who, notwithstanding, possessed a highly cultivated mind, and was by no means deficient in strong natural eloquence. 4. Traces of ETHICS, that is, of the system of prevailing moral opinions, may be found in the book of Job, in the 37th, 39th, and 73d Psalms, also in the books of Proverbs and Ecclesiastes, but chiefly in the apocryphal book of Wisdom, and the writings of the son of Sirach. During the captivity the Jews acquired many new notions, and appropriated them, as occasion offered, to their own purposes. They at length became acquainted with the philosophy of the Greeks, which makes its appearance abundantly in the book of Wisdom. After the captivity, the language in which the sacred books were written was no longer vernacular. Hence arose the need of an interpreter in the sabbatic year, a time when the whole law was read; and also on the sabbath in the synagogues, which had been recently erected in order to make the people understand what was read. These interpreters learnt the Hebrew language at the schools. The teachers of these schools, who, for the two generations preceding the time of Christ, had maintained some acquaintance with the Greek philosophy, were not satisfied with a simple interpretation of the Hebrew idiom, as it stood, but shaped the interpretation so as to render it conformable to their philosophy. Thus arose contentions, which gave occasion for the various sects of Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes. In the time of our Saviour, divisions had arisen among the Pharisees themselves. No less than eighteen nice questions, if we may believe the Jewish Rabbins, were contested, at that period, between the schools of Hillel and Shammai. One of which questions was an inquiry, "What cause was sufficient for a bill of divorce?" If the Shammai and Hillel of the Talmud are the same with the learned men mentioned in Josephus, viz. Sameas and Pollio, who flourished thirty-four years before Christ, then Shammai or Sameas is most probably the same with the Simeon who is mentioned in Luke ii. 25. 34., and his son Gamaliel, so celebrated in the For an Index of the Symbolical Language of the Scriptures designed to facilitate the Reading of the Poetical and Prophetical Books, see the Appendix to this Volume, No. III. Talmud, is the same with the Gamaliel mentioned in Acts v. 34., xxii. 3. 5. PHYSICS, or NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, has secured but little attention in the East; but a knowledge of the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms, or the science of NATURAL HISTORY, was always much more an object of interest. Whatever knowledge of this science the Hebrews subsequently had, they most probably derived partly from the Canaanitish merchants, partly from the Egyptians, and other nations with whom they had intercourse. The book of Job evinces that its author possessed an intimate knowledge of the works of nature. The agricultural and pastoral habits of the Hebrews were favourable to the acquisition of this science; and how much they loved it will be evident to any one who peruses the productions of the sacred poets, especially those of David. But no one among the Hebrews could ever be compared to King Solomon; who spake of trees, from the cedar that is in Lebanon, even to the hyssop that springeth out of the wall, and also of beasts and of fowl, and of creeping things and of fishes. (1 Kings iv. 33.) The numerous images which our Saviour derived from the works of nature attest how deeply he had contemplated them. 6. ARITHMETIC.-The more simple methods of arithmetical calculation are spoken of in the Pentateuch, as if they were well known. The merchants of that early period must, for their own convenience, have been possessed of some method of operating by numbers. 7. MATHEMATICS. By this term we understand Geometry, Mensuration, Navigation, &c. As far as a knowledge of them was absolutely required by the condition and employments of the people, we may well suppose that knowledge to have actually existed; although no express mention is made of these sciences. 8. ASTRONOMY.-The interests of agriculture and navigation required some knowledge of astronomy. An evidence that an attempt was made at a very early period to regulate the year by the annual revolution of the sun, may be found in the fact, that the Jewish months were divided into thirty days each. (See Gen. vii. 11., viii. 4.) In Astronomy, the Egyptians, Babylonians, and Phoenicians exhibited great superiority; but it does not appear to have been much cultivated by the Hebrews. The laws of Moses, indeed, by no means. favoured this science, as the neighbouring heathen nations worshipped the host of heaven; hence the sacred writers rarely mention any of the constellations by name. See Job ix. 9., xxxviii. 31, 32.; Isa. xiii. 10.; Amos v. 8.; 2 Kings xxiii. 5. 9. ASTROLOGY. It is by no means surprising that the Hebrews did not devote greater attention to astronomy, since the study of astrology, which was intimately connected with that of astronomy, and was very highly estimated among the neighbouring nations (Isa. xlvii. 9.; Jer. xxvii. 9., 1. 35.; Dan. ii. 13. 48.), was interdicted to the Hebrews. (Deut. xviii. 10.; Lev. xx. 27.) Daniel, indeed, studied the art of astrology at Babylon, but he did not practise it. (Dan. i. 20., ii. 2.) The astrologers (and those wise men mentioned in Matt. ii. 1. et seq. appear to have been such) divided the heavens into apartments or habitations, to each one of which apartments they assigned a ruler or president. This fact developes the origin of the word BɛɛɛBoux, or the Lord of the (celestial) dwelling. (Matt. x. 25., xii. 24. 27.; Mark iii. 22.; Luke xi. 15—19.) 10. MEASURES of length are mentioned in Gen. vi. 15, 16. A knowledge of the method of measuring lands is implied in the account given in Gen. xlvii. 20–27. Mention is made, in the books of Job and Joshua, of a line or rope for the purpose of taking measurements. It was brought by the Hebrews out of Egypt, where, according to the unanimous testimony of antiquity, SURVEYING first had its origin, and, in consequence of the inundations of the Nile, was carried to the greatest height. It was here, as we may well conclude, that the Hebrews acquired so much knowledge of the principles of that science, as to enable them, with the aid of the measuring line above mentioned, to partition and set off geographically the whole land of Canaan. The weights used in weighing solid bodies (Gen. xxiii. 15, 16.), provided they were similar to each other in form, imply a knowledge of the rudiments of stereometry. 11. THE MECHANIC ARTS. -No express mention is made of the mechanic arts; but that a knowledge of them, notwithstanding, existed, may be inferred from the erection of Noah's ark, and the tower of Babel; from the use of balances in the time of Abraham; also from what is said of the Egyptian chariots, in Gen. xli. 43., xlv. 19., 1. 9., and Exod. xiv. 6, 7.; and from the instruments used by the Egyptians in irrigating their lands. (Deut. xi. 10.) It is implied in the mention of these, and subsequently of many other instruments, that other instruments still, not expressly named, but which were, of course, necessary for the formation of those which are named, were in existence. 12. GEOGRAPHY.-Geographical notices occur so frequently in the Bible, that it is not necessary to say much on this point; but see Gen. x. 1-30., xii. 4-15., xiv. 1-16., xxviii. 2-9., xlix. 13., &c. From Josh. xviii. 9. it appears that a map was made of the whole of Palestine and it is evident from their geographical knowledge, as well as from other circumstances already mentioned, that there must have existed among the Hebrews the rudiments, if nothing more, of geographical science.1 : SECT. IV. ON THE COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION OF THE HEBREWS. I. THE Scriptures do not afford us any example of trade, more ancient than those caravans of Ishmaelites and Midianites, to whom Joseph was perfidiously sold by his brethren. (Gen. xxxvii. 25—28.) Jahn's Archæologia Biblica, by Upham, §§ 98-100. 104. 106. Pareau, Antiquitas Hebraica, pp. 432-438. These men were on their return from Gilead, with their camels laden with spices, and other rich articles of merchandise, which they were carrying into Egypt; where, doubtless, they produced a great return, from the quantities consumed in that country for embalming the bodies of the dead. From their purchasing Joseph, and selling him to Potiphar, it is evident that their traffic was not confined to the commodities furnished by Gilead. The traffic, thus early commenced, must have been carried on during succeeding ages, and constituted a profitable trade with the Egyptians; who, however, carried on no foreign commerce. They abandoned the navigation of the sea to others but it was their policy, like the modern Chinese, to make it the interest of other nations to trade with them, and to bring them the productions of their climes. In subsequent ages the Egyptians had the control of no small part of the commerce of Greece and Rome, by the dependence of those countries upon them for corn. But the most distinguished merchants of ancient times were the Phoenicians, who bought the choicest productions of the East, which they exported to Africa and Europe, whence they took in return silver and other articles of merchandise, which they again circulated in the East. Their first metropolis was Sidon, and afterwards Tyre, founded about 250 years before the building of Solomon's temple, or 1251 before the Christian æra; and wherever they went, they appear to have established peaceful commercial settlements, mutually beneficial to themselves and to the natives of the country visited by them. The commerce of Tyre is particularly described in Isa. xxiii. and Ezek. xxvii., xxviii. II. The commerce of the East appears to have been chiefly carried on by land: hence ships are but rarely mentioned in the Old Testament before the times of David and Solomon. There were two principal routes from Palestine to Egypt; viz. one along the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea, from Gaza to Pelusium, which was about three days' journey; and the other from Gaza to the Elanitic branch of the Arabian Gulf, which now passes near Mount Sinai, and requires nearly a month to complete it. Although chariots were not unknown to the ancient inhabitants of the East, yet they chiefly transported their merchandise across the desert on camels, a hardy race of animals, admirably adapted by nature for this purpose and lest they should be plundered by robbers, the merchants used to travel in large bodies (as they now do), which are called curavans; or in smaller companies termed kafilés or kaflés. (Job. vi. 18, 19.; Gen. xxxvii. 25.; Isa. xxi. 13.) III. Although the land of Canaan was, from its abundant produce, admirably adapted to commerce, yet Moses enacted no laws in favour of trade; because the Hebrews, being specially set apart for the preservation of true religion, could not be dispersed among idolatrous nations without being in danger of becoming contaminated with their abominable worship. As the inland trade sufficed for the simple wants of the people, he only inculcated the strictest justice in weights and measures (Lev. xix. 36, 37.; Deut. xxv. 13, 14.); and left the rest to future ages and governors. It is obvious, however, that the three great festivals of the Jews, who were bound to present themselves before Jehovah thrice in the year, would give occasion for much domestic traffic, which the individuals of the twelve tribes would carry on with each other either for money or produce. From Judg. v. 17. it should seem that the tribes of Dan and Asher had some commercial dealings with the neighbouring maritime nations; but the earliest direct notice contained in the Scriptures of the commerce of the Hebrews does not occur before the reign of David. That wise and valiant prince, by many victories, not only enlarged the boundaries of his empire, but also subdued the kingdom of Edom (which he reduced into a province), and made himself master of the two ports of Elath and Ezion-geber on the Red Sea. Part of the wealth acquired by his conquests he employed in purchasing cedartimber from Hiram I. king of Tyre, with whom he maintained a friendly correspondence as long as he lived; and he also hired Tyrian masons and carpenters for carrying on his works. This prince collected, for the building of the temple, upwards of eight hundred millions of our money, according to Dr. Arbuthnot's calculations.2 On the death of David, Solomon, his successor, cultivated the arts of peace, and was thereby enabled to indulge his taste for magnificence and luxury, more than his father could possibly do. Being blessed with a larger share of wisdom than ever before fell to the lot of any man, he directed his talents for business to the improvement of foreign commerce, which had not been expressly prohibited by Moses. He employed the vast wealth amassed by his father in works of architecture, and in strengthening and beautifying his kingdom. The celebrated temple at Jerusalem, the fortifications of that capital, and many entire cities (among which was the famous Tadmor or Palmyra), were built by him. Finding his own subjects but little qualified for such undertakings, he applied to Hiram II. king of Tyre, the son of his father's friend Hiram, who furnished him with cedar and fir (or cypress) timber, and large stones, all properly cut and prepared for building; which the Tyrians carried by water to the most convenient landing-place in Solomon's dominions. Hiram II. also sent a great number of workmen to assist and instruct Solomon's people, none of whom had skill to hew timber like unto the Sidonians (1 Kings v. 5, 6.), as the Israelites then called the Tyrians, from their having been originally a colony from Sidon. Solomon, in return, furnished the Tyrians with corn, wine, and oil; and he even received a balance in gold. (1 Kings v. 9-11.; 2 Chron. ii. 10.) It is not improbable, however, that the gold was the stipulated price for Solomon's cession of twenty cities to the Tyrians; but Hiram, not liking the cities, afterwards returned them to him. (1 Kings ix. 12, 13.) Eupolemus, an ancient writer quoted by Eusebius (De Præp. Evang. lib. ix.), says that David built ships in Arabia, in which he sent men skilled in mines and metals to the island of Ophir. Some modern authors, improving upon this rather suspicious authority, have ascribed to David the honour of being the founder of the great East Indian com merce. 2 Tables of Ancient Coins, pp. 35. 208. |