making cotton printing cloths of a yard in width, having the same texture as those of the English mills. In 1871, 4,400 looms and 230,000 spindles were in operation in all the mills; the number of hands was 3,100, of whom two thirds were women and girls; number of water wheels, 15, of 3,000 horse power. To July 1 of that year $1,750,000 had been expended for machinery and $2,275,000 for real estate. The average monthly product is 5,500,000 yards of cloth. In 1870, 52,342,000 yards were manufactured, worth $4,053,254; amount of cotton consumed, 9,012,000 lbs., worth $2,545,887; wages paid, $855,350. The company have recently erected a large brick depot on the New York Central railroad, capable of containing 15,000 bales of cotton. They own large storehouses, and 700 or 800 dwellings occupied by their employees, which are situated on wide streets, regularly laid out, well paved, lighted with gas, and bordered with trees. Knit goods, including undershirts, drawers, and stockings, are a prominent feature of the industry of Cohoes, which produces a third of all the hosiery manufactured in the country. In 1870 there were 18 knitting mills, with an aggregate capital of $1,157,000, requiring 1,066 horse power; amount of wages paid, $535,362; value of materials used, 1,394,948; value of products, $2,345,226. The first knitting mill in the United States was established here in 1832, but it is only within a few years that the business has assumed its present proportions. The Cohoes rolling mill occupies an area of 500 by 160 ft., and produces shafting, bar and band iron, and a superior quality of axe, pick, and mattock poles, as well as an excellent iron for tool makers, which is said to have superseded to some extent the Norway iron formerly used. In 1870 this establishment produced 2,500 tons of band iron and 8,000 axe poles, of the aggregate value of $299,000. There are two axe factories, producing articles to the value of $380,000. The Empire pin company has a capital of $25,000, and in 1870 manufactured 175,000 packages of pins, worth $38,359. A new factory 40 by 100 ft., and six stories high, has recently been erected by the company. The Cohoes knittingneedle factory in 1870 produced 2,804,000 dozen needles, worth $14,450. Besides the establishments mentioned, there are two founderies, three machine shops, a planing mill, a sawing and bevelling establishment, a paper mill, and manufactories of straw board, bedsteads, and tape. The city contains two banks, with an aggregate capital of $350,000. It is divided into four wards, and is governed by a mayor, who, together with the board of aldermen, consisting of two members from each ward, constitute the common council. The public schools, under the control of two commissioners in each ward, are 22 in number, including a high school, and have 28 teachers and 1,430 pupils. There are night schools for the operatives. The Harmony company sup ports a Sunday school, which has an average attendance of 420 pupils, and is furnished with an elegant school room, a library of 1,800 volumes, and a well appointed reading room. There are also several, parish schools, and two weekly newspapers. There are 7 churches, of which 2 are Roman Catholic. One of the Catholic churches is supported by French Canadians, who are largely represented among the mill hands.-Previous to 1811 the site of Cohoes was a barren waste. In that year the Cohoes manufacturing company was incorporated, "for the purpose of manufacturing cotton, woollen, and linen goods, bar iron, nail rods, hoop iron, and ironmongery;" but it failed about 15 years later. In 1831 the population of the neighborhood did not exceed 150. It was incorporated as a village in 1848, and as a city in 1869. COHORT, in Roman antiquity, a division of an army, comprising three maniples or six centuries, and being the tenth part of a legion. It contained from 400 to 600 men, according to the number in the legion. There was one cohort (cohors milliaria) which had precedence over the others, and consisted of 1,000 select men. It marched in the van, carried the eagle, and was commanded by a tribune of approved valor. Marius, who during the wars with the Cimbri introduced tactical reforms into the Roman army, was the first who organized the legion into ten cohorts. The prætorian cohorts were the special guards successively of the generals, triumvirs, and emperors, and exerted great influence during the decline of the empire. Augustus organized nine of them, which he retained as a standing army in the vicinity of Rome, under the command of two prefects. Tiberius placed them under a single prefect, and gave them a fortified camp within the walls. (See PRETORIANS.)-When Napoleon organized the legion of honor, he divided it into 16 cohorts. COHOSH, an Indian name applied to cimicifuga racemosa (Gray), or black snakeroot, a plant of Cohosh (Actra spicata). the order ranuncu lacea. Two varieties of actaa spicata are known respectively as red and white cohosh. The black snakeroot has a perennial root and herbaceous stem, which rises to the height of 4 to 8 ft., and grows in shady woods from Canada to Florida. Its physiological action has not been well determined, but it is regarded as a stimulant tonic, and is said to diminish both the force and frequency of the pulse. It has been used in a great variety of diseases, most frequently perhaps in rheumatism and cholera, and has had a reputation in snake bites. Cimicifugine is a name improperly applied to an impure resin derived from this plant.-The name cohosh, or blue cohosh, is also given to caulophyllum thalictroides or pappoose root. COIF, a head dress. In the middle ages a defensive covering for the head was called by this name, but it was applied more particularly to the covering for the shaven crown of the priests, and to the cap of the advocates. A barrister becoming a sergeant is said to be advanced to the degree of the coif, and takes position accordingly. COIMBATORE, or Coimbatoor. I. A district of British India, in the presidency of Madras, between lat. 10° 14' and 12° 19' N., and lon. 76° 36' and 78° 16' E.; area, 8,099 sq. m.; pop. in 1871, 1,754,705. The district is enclosed on the north by the group of mountains bordering the table land of Mysore, and on the south by the Pulnai or Vurragiri mountains, and by the Animali range. The principal rivers are the Cavery, Bhowani, Noyel, and Ambrawutty. Although the climate is rendered insalubrious by several extensive morasses, it is better than that of the maritime parts of the Carnatic. Elephants abound. The vegetable productions consist mainly of dry grains. Among the productions are gram, various sorts of panic and of millet, turmeric, and ment of native infantry is stationed here. The European quarter is eastward and detached from the town. COIMBRA, a city of Portugal, capital of the province of Beira, 120 m. N. N. E. of Lisbon; pop. about 19,000. It is situated on the river Mondego, in the midst of a mountainous but fertile and well cultivated tract. Its principal public building is the university, the only one in Portugal, founded at Lisbon in 1291, and transferred hither in 1308. It consists of 18 colleges, is divided into 6 faculties, employs 33 professors in ordinary and 22 assistant professors, has a library of over 30,000 volumes, and is attended by about 1,500 students; it is highly endowed, the courses of study are long, and the annual examinations are said to be severe. Coimbra is the seat of a bishopric, and has the wealthy Augustinian convent of Santa Cruz, with its immense Gothic structure. There are also a college of arts belonging to the Jesuits, a cathedral, eight churches, and several monasteries. On a hill near Coimbra is the splendid convent and church of the nuns of Santa Clara, Plaza, Coimbra. tobacco. Teak and other valuable timber is pro- | and in the valley of the Mondego opposite to it duced, as well as castor oil and cotton; the last two articles form the principal exports. Experiments have been made with American cotton and Mauritius sugar, proving the fitness of the soil for their cultivation. The language spoken is the Tamil. II. The capital of the district, a well built town, occupying an elevated and dry situation on the banks of the Noyel, on the railway from Madras to Beypoor, 268 m. S. W. of Madras, and 600 m. S. S. E. of Bombay; pop. about 20,000. It contains a mosque built by Tippoo Sultan, who made this place one of his principal military stations. About 2 m. from the town, at Peruru, is a Hindoo temple, called Mail Chittumbra. It is roughly constructed, but covered with a profusion of Hindoo ornaments. Some time ago an ancient tumulus near Coimbatore was opened, and found to contain various weapons and other articles, such The town was twice taken by the British: s were formerly in use among the Romans. once in 1783, and again in 1790. A detach is the Quinta das Lagrimas, famed in poetry as the scene where Ines de Castro was slain. Seven kings of Portugal were born and four died here, and several princes derived their title from the town. Coimbra is said to be the Conimbrica of the Romans. It sustained many sieges in medieval times. COIN, a town of Andalusia, Spain, in the province and 20 m. W. of the city of Malaga; pop. about 8,500. It is well built, has good streets and squares, and a promenade with a fountain. Besides two large churches, there are several chapels and convents, an episcopal palace, and a number of schools. In the vicinity are pleasure grounds and gardens, and in the adjoining hills are marble quarries and great quantities of jasper. Paper, linen, woollens, and other articles are manufactured, and the principal articles of trade are cattle, cereals, fruits, and wine. An annual fair is held in August. COINS (Fr. coin, a die or stamp), metallic money; specie; pieces of metal, generally gold, 1000 900 silver, or copper, bearing certain marks or de- yet for the most part the coins of the world vices to indicate their origin and value, and consist not of pure gold and silver, but of these designed to be used as money. How early gold metals alloyed with some other, generally copand silver began to be used as money, history per, in definite proportions fixed by law. The does not inform us. Nearly 2,000 years before difficulty of ridding gold entirely of the silver Christ Abraham returned from Egypt ". very with which it is always found combined in narich in cattle, in silver, and in gold;" and in his ture has led in some countries to the practice purchase of the cave of Machpelah, he weighed of leaving enough silver to serve for alloy. out the consideration agreed upon, "400 she- This is the case in Spanish America, as is indikels of silver, current money with the mer- cated by the paleness of their doubloons. In chant." The use of the metals, however, in some European countries the silver is entirely the form of wedges or bars, though an immense removed, and copper introduced for alloy, givimprovement upon simple barter, or the use of ing to the coins a reddish cast. In the United cattle, grain, and other commodities, was still States the practice of the mint is to imitate the attended with inconveniences. At every trans- true color of gold in the coinage, by using an action the precise weight of metal must be alloy of about copper and silver; that is, computed; a hammer and chisel must be at in 1,000 oz. of standard gold there are 900 oz. hand to cut it off, and a balance to weigh it. pure gold, 10 oz. silver, and 90 oz. copper.— The fineness of the metal was also to be ascer- The term standard, as applied to coins, means tained. All these troubles were at length end- strictly the conditions of fineness and weight ed by the expedient of shaping the metals into to which they are required by law to conform. pieces of convenient size, and stamping upon Thus, in the United States, the gold coins must each its exact value. He who first did this be made of metal consisting of pure gold was the inventor of coins; but history is silent and alloy; in other words, they must be respecting his name, his country, or the date fine. This is the standard fineness, and gold of his invention. Homer, although he speaks of this quality is called standard gold. The of workers in metals, makes no mention of weight of such gold required by law in each coined money. Herodotus says that the Ly-gold coin is its standard weight. Thus in the dians, as far as he knew, were the first who struck money; and although the oldest specimens of coin now extant have usually been supposed to be Grecian, there are reasons for thinking with Herodotus that the invention was Asiatic. Coins were probably used as early as the 8th century B. C., and by the 4th century money was found throughout the civilized world, every state having its proper coinage. Most of the commoner metals have in turn been used for making coins. The early coins of Asia Minor were of electrum, a mixture of gold and silver, in the proportion of three of the former to one of the latter. Lycurgus banished gold and silver, and made the money of Sparta of iron, $100 worth of which required a cart and two oxen to remove it. Copper formed the early money of the Romans; and when Cæsar landed in Britain, coins of brass and iron were found in use. Tin was coined by Charles II., and James II. even resorted to gun metal and pewter. At the present day, however, the precious metals, gold and silver, with copper for the lowest denomination, are almost universally employed as the material of coins. Coins of platinum were formerly struck in Russia, but its use for this purpose has recently been abandoned. Gold and silver in a state of purity are soft and ductile; and coins made of these metals would suffer loss and injury to a certain degree by abrasion, if there were no means of hardening them. The addition of a small quantity of alloy is found to produce this effect, without materially impairing the ductility or beauty of the metals. Although in a few countries coins are issued of almost absolute purity, such as the gold sequins of Tuscany and the silver florins of Hanover, eagle there must be 258 grains. In estimating the value of coins, it is the quantity of fine metal contained in them which is considered; the alloy goes for nothing. The practice of the world is not uniform in regard to standard fineness of coins; some countries issuing coins of as low fineness as 250 thousandths, and others aiming at absolute purity. Great Britain still retains the old proportion of alloy; while in the United States, France, Spain, Belgium, and some other countries, the decimal proportion of alloy has been adopted. Different modes of expressing the fineness of coins and bullion prevail in different countries. Where the decimal system of notation is employed, it is expressed in thousandths. Thus the standard fineness of would be written, or simply 900; and bullion containing three fourths pure metal would be said to be 750 fine. In Great Britain two systems prevail, one for gold and one for silver. The fineness of gold is expressed in carats, absolute purity being 24 carats fine. The standard fineness of British gold coins is 22 carats, which is equivalent to, or 916 thousandths; so that if a given weight of American gold coin is worth $54, the same weight of British coin is worth $55. For the purpose of expressing minute degrees of fineness in bullion, the carat is divided into four carat grains, and these again into quarters. At the British mint, assays are carried to the half quarter, or the part of the carat. In this system the United States standard of 20% would be expressed 2113 carats. The fineness of silver is estimated by stating the number of ounces of fine silver in a pound troy of the metal. Thus pure silver is 12 fine; and English silver coins are 11 fine, because in a pound troy of standard silver the law requires 11 oz. pure silver and of an oz. alloy. Thus it will be seen that while the British standard for gold coins is 916 thousandths, that of silver coin is 925 thousandths.-Coins are generally made flat, circular, and thin. By being flattened they receive better impressions, and are conveniently handled and piled. The circular form simplifies the process of fabrication, diminishes the abrasion to which the coins are subjected in circulation, and fits them for being carried in the pocket. Though the circular form was aimed at in ancient coinage, it was not till the 7th or 8th century that a true circle was attained. This is effected by striking the coin in a ring or collar. The exceptions to the circular form are not numerous. We have, however, the square ducat of Nuremberg, the square rupees of the Mogul empire, the parallelograms of Japan, the octagonal pieces of Assam, and the $50 octagons which were formerly struck in California. The thickness of coins is generally proportioned to their diameter, though in this particular there is great variety. The size of coins is also exceedingly variable. In the United States silver coins range from the three-cent piece to the dollar, or from 11 grains to 412 in weight, and from about inch to 13 inch diameter. Gold coins range 7 from the dollar of 25 grains to the double eagle of 516 grains. The cent coin (copper and nickel), issued under the act of 1857, is about three fourths of an inch in diameter, and weighs 72 grains, while the bronze cent, under the act of 1864, weighs only 48 grains, but retains the same diameter.-The impressions upon coins present an endless variety. In monarchical countries the obverse of the coin usually bears the likeness of the reigning sovereign, and from this circumstance that side of the coin is in common parlance called the head. In republics it is usual to substitute some device emblematic of liberty. This is often a female figure, or head, with a pileus, or Roman liberty cap. The date is also placed upon the obverse in coins of the United States. verse of a coin commonly exhibits in the centre the national shield, or the denomination of the piece surrounded by a wreath. Running round the coin near the border, there is usually inscribed the name of the country in which it was struck. It is customary also in countries having more than one mint to distinguish the coinage of each by a letter or monogram. The several branches of the mint of the United States, at Charlotte, Dahlonega, New Orleans, and San Francisco, used to employ for this purpose the initials C., D., O., and S., respectively, coins from the mint at Philadelphia having no mark; but since the civil war no coinage has been executed at Charlotte, Dahlonega, or New Orleans, and the mints at the last two places have been discontinued by the coinage act of 1873, that at Charlotte being retained as an assay office only. In the United States the power to coin money is The re vested by the constitution in congress, and is prohibited to the separate states; and yet individual citizens are left perfectly free to coin money, provided only that the coins thus made be not in "resemblance or similitude" of the gold or silver coins issued from the mint. In the case of copper coins, however, in addition to the penalties of counterfeiting, the offering or receiving any other copper coin than the cent and half cent is prohibited by fine and forfeiture. Very large amounts of private gold coins have been struck and extensively circulated in different parts of the country. Such were the coins issued by Reid of Georgia, the Bechtlers of North Carolina, the Mormons in Utah, and several private mints in California.-The earliest coinage for America is said to have been made in 1612 for the Virginia company, at the Somers islands, now called Bermudas. The coin was of brass, with the legend "Sommer Island," and a "hogge on one side, in memory of the abundance of hogges which were found on their first landing." On the reverse was a ship under sail firing a gun. As early as 1645 the assembly of Virginia, "having maturely weighed and considered how advantageous a quoine current would be to this collony, and the great wants and miseries which do daily happen unto it by the sole dependency upon tobacco," provided by law for the coinage of copper pieces of 2d., 3d., 6d., and 9d.; but this law was never carried into effect. The earliest colonial coinage was in Massachusetts, in pursuance of an order of the general court, passed May 27, 1652, which established " a mint howse at Boston. The order required the coinage of "12 pence, 6 pence, and 3 pence pieces, which shall be for forme flatt, and stamped on the one side with N. E., and on the other side with XIId., VId., and IIId., according to the value of each peece." These coins were to be of the fineness of "new sterling English money," and every shilling was "to weigh threepenny troy weight, and lesser peeces proportionably." They were soon after in circulation; but owing to the excessive plainness of their finish, they were found to be greatly exposed to "washing and clipping." To remedy this, the general court, on Oct. 19 of the same year, ordered a new die, and required that "henceforth both shillings and smaller peeces shall have a double ring on either side, with this inscription, (Massachusetts), and a tree in the centre, on the one side, and New England and the date of the year on the other side." In 1662 a twopenny piece was added to the series. These coins are now known as the "pine tree shilling," &c. The Massachusetts mint existed about 34 years; but all the coins issued bear only the dates 1652 and 1662, the same dies having probably done service throughout the period. In the reign of William and Mary copper coins were struck in England for New England and Carolina, having on the obverse an elephant, and on the reverse respectively, "God preserve New England, 1694," and "God preserve Carolina and the lords proprietors, 1694." As early as 1662 an act was passed by the provincial assembly of Maryland "for the getting up of a mint within the province." It is probable, however, that the mint was never established; but shillings, sixpences, and fourpences of silver were made in England under the direction of Lord Baltimore, and sent to the colony, having on the obverse a profile bust of Lord Baltimore, with the legend Cæcilius: Dns: Terræ: Maria: &c.; reverse, an escutcheon with family arms, value of the piece, and the legend, Crescite et Multiplicamini. There were also copper halfpennies with the same obverse, and having on the reverse the legend, Denarivm: Terra-Maria, and in the centre two flags on a ducal coronet. New Hampshire legislated for a copper coinage in 1766; but, as in the case of Virginia and Maryland, nothing more was done. In the reign of George I. an attempt was made to introduce into general circulation in the colonies coins made of Bath metal or pinchbeck, having on the obverse the head of that king and the legend, Georgius D. G. Mag. Bri. et lib. Rex; and on the reverse a large double rose with the legend Rosa Americana, Utile Dulci, 1722 and 1723, in the last the rose being crowned. These coins were made by William Wood, under a royal patent "for coining small money for the English plantations, in pursuance of which he had the conscience to make 13 shillings out of a pound of brass." This "Wood's money," however, was vehemently rejected both here and in Ireland, where strenuous efforts were made to introduce it. From 1778 to 1787 the power of coinage was exercised not only by the confederation in congress, but also by several of the individual states. In Vermont a mint was established by legislative authority in 1785, in the town of Rupert, and copper cents were issued of the following description: Obverse, a sun rising from behind hills, and plough in the foreground, with the legend, Vermontensium Res Publica, 1786; reverse, a radiated eye surrounded by 13 stars, with the legend, Quarta Decima Stella. Some of the cents of 1786 and all those of 1787-'8 have on the obverse a head, with the legend, Auctoritate Vermontensium, and on the reverse a woman, with the legend, Inde. Et Lib. Connecticut followed the example of Vermont, and in the same year, 1785, authorized the establishment of a mint at New Haven, and copper coins were issued, weighing six pennyweights, and having on the obverse a head with the words Auctori, Connec: reverse, a female figure holding an olive branch, with the legend, Inde. Et Lib. 1785. This mint continued in operation three years. New Jersey authorized a copper coinage in 1786. The parties procuring the patent established two mints, one at a place known as Solitude, about two miles west of Morristown, and the other at Elizabeth. The coins are thus described: Obverse, a horse's head with a plough beneath-legend, Nova Casarea, 1786, &c.; reverse, a shield-legend, E Pluribus Unum. Massachusetts, by act of Oct. 17, 1786, directed the establishment of a mint, and the following year the necessary works were erected on Boston neck and at Dedham. In 1788 cents and half cents were issued, exhibiting on the obverse the American eagle with arrows in the right talon and an olive branch in the left, a shield on its breast bearing the word Cent"-legend, "Massachusetts, 1788;" reverse, an Indian holding a bow and arrowlegend, "Commonwealth" and a star.-As early as January, 1782, a plan for an American coinage was submitted to congress by Robert Morris, the head of the finance department, the authorship of which is, however, claimed for Gouverneur Morris. In February following congress approved the establishment of a mint, but no further action was taken till 1785, when congress adopted the plan of a national coinage presented by Thomas Jefferson, and in 1786 decided upon the following names and characters of the coins: An eagle, to contain 246-263 grs. of fine gold, value $10, and half eagle in proportion, both to be stamped with the American eagle; a dollar, to contain 375-4 grs. of fine silver; a half dollar, double dime, and dime, in proportion. The copper coins were a cent and half cent. In October, 1786, congress framed an ordinance for the establishment of a mint; but nothing further was done till 1787, when the board of treasury, by authority of congress, contracted with Mr. James Jarvis for 300 tons of copper coin of the federal standard. These cents were coined at the New Haven mint, and are of the following description: On one side, 13 circles linked together, a small circle in the middle with the words "United States " around it, and in the centre the words, “We are one;" on the other side, a sun dial with the sun above it, and Fugio, 1787, on opposite sides, and below the dial, "Mind Your Business." A few of these pieces are said to have been struck in the Vermont mint at Rupert. On April 2, 1792, a code of laws was enacted for the establishment and regulation of the mint, under which, with slight amendments, the coinage was executed for 42 years. The denominations of coin and their rates were as follows: Gold, the eagle of $10, to weigh 270 grs., the half eagle and quarter eagle in proportion, all of the fineness of 22 carats, or 916 thousandths; silver, the dollar of 100 cents, to weigh 416 grs., the half dollar, quarter dollar, dime of 10 cents, and half dime in proportion, the fineness to be 1,485 parts fine in 1,664, or 892'4 thousandths; copper, the cent of 264 grs., the half cent in proportion. The same act declared the dollar to be the unit of federal money, and directed that all public accounts should be kept in conformity to the decimal system of coins above described. After the act of 1792 the following changes in the currency occurred: Jan. 14, 1793, the cent reduced to 208 grs., and half |