sence of the violet or red color reaction with sulphuric acid characteristic of the biliary acids, and by the specific gravity, that of shark liver oil, which also gives the violet reaction with sulphuric acid, being 0-866, which is less than that of cod liver oil. The latter varies in color from a light yellow to a dark brown, and in taste and smell from a slight and hardly disagreeable, though characteristic flavor and odor, to a nauseous taste and a repulsive odor. These varieties depend upon the condition of the livers at the time of the extraction of the oil, and upon its subsequent treatment. That which is derived from fresh livers is the lightest in color and has the least smell. The darker and more disagreeable varieties are procured from livers which have undergone more or less putrefaction. The chemical composition of cod liver oil is not yet satisfactorily made out. It contains a dark brown, odorless and tasteless substance called gaduine; oleine and margarine; butyric and acetic acids; biliary principles; iodine, chlorine, and bromine in exceedingly small quantities; phosphoric and sulphuric acids; phosphorus, lime, magnesia, soda, and iron. The volatile alkaloid propylamine, which imparts a peculiar odor to herring pickle, and which is probable identical with secalia obtained from ergot, may be derived from cod-liver oil by distillation with ammonia. Cod-liver oil is employed with advantage in diseases which are characterized by impaired nutrition. It is regarded as one of the most useful remedies known in medicine. In pulmonary consumption, although not a specific, it contributes, when well borne, to the nourishment of the patient, relieves many unpleasant symptoms, and often prolongs life. Its action is probably that of an easily assimilated fat, furnishing in itself an important element of food, and assisting in the assimilation of other nutritive principles. Considerable importance has been attributed to the therapeutic action of the minute quantity of iodine and other inorganic constituents which cod-liver oil contains, and with better reason to the biliary acids and other peculiar substances that enter into its composition. The biliary principles may probably be found in larger proportion in the "extract of cod liver," prepared by evaporating the watery liquid which escapes from the liver when the oil is extracted, than in other preparations of oil. This preparation has been declared, chiefly however by those interested in its sale, to possess a degree of remedial efficacy that has not yet been proved. The chief objection to the administration of cod-liver oil, and one that is sometimes insuperable, is its taste. This may be more or less completely disguised by aromatics, bitters, oil of bitter almonds, or the froth of porter. It may be partially saponified by an alkali, or made into an emulsion. One of the simplest and easiest methods of avoiding its disagreeable taste is to masticate a few cloves and swallow the oil before their pungent impres

sion upon the mouth has departed, when the taste of the oil will not be perceived. Codliver oil is chiefly used as a remedy in pulmonary consumption, but its efficacy is not confined to this affection. It may be advantageously prescribed in many forms of impaired nutrition, and especially in the protean derangements resulting from impaired nervous power. It should not be administered when it reduces the appetite or disturbs digestion. It is usually borne best if it is taken about an hour after a meal. Its good effects are most evident when it has been taken for several months consecutively. The dose is from a teaspoonful to a tablespoonful three times a day. Four or five grains of pancreatine added to each tablespoonful will make the oil set better.

CODOGNO, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province and 32 m. S. E. of Milan, between the Po and the Adda; pop. about 9,000. It has broad streets, several colleges and schools, good private buildings, some handsome churches, a hospital, and a theatre. It is noted for its silk manufactures, and for being the principal mart in Italy for Parmesan cheese. The Austrians were defeated here in 1746 by the Spaniards, and in 1796 by the French.

CODRINGTON. I. Sir Edward, an English admiral, born in 1770, died in London, April 28, 1851. He became a lieutenant in the navy in 1793, and served on board Lord Howe's flag ship at the victory over the French, June 1, 1794. He was soon after made a post captain, and at the battle of Trafalgar commanded the Orion, 74. Subsequently he took part in the bombardment of Flushing, in Strachan's expedition to the Scheldt, and in the defence of Cadiz; and commanded a squadron against the French on the coast of Catalonia. In 1814 he was promoted to the rank of rear admiral, and employed on the American station. On July 10, 1821, he became vice admiral, and in 1826 was placed in command of the fleet in the Mediterranean. In this capacity he had the chief command of the combined British, Russian, and French fleets at the battle of Navarino, Oct. 20, 1827, and, although that action was spoken of by the British government as an "untoward event," he was rewarded both by England and Russia. He represented the borough of Devonport in parliament from 1832 to 1839. A memoir of his life has been edited by his daughter, Lady Bourchier (2 vols., London, 1873). II. Sir William John, an English general, son of the preceding, born in 1800. He entered the Coldstream guards in 1821, and rose through the successive grades to the rank of major general, which he attained in 1854. His promotion having left him unattached, he joined the army in the East as an amateur, but the commander-in-chief, Lord Raglan, soon gave him the first brigade of the light division, with which he played a distinguished part at the battles of the Alma and Inkerman; and when Gen. Sir George

Brown was wounded, he succeeded to the | command of the light division. He directed the attack on the redan, but his conduct on that occasion subjected him to depreciating comments from some quarters. On the resignation of Gen. Simpson he was appointed to the | chief command, and in that capacity brought the troops home. He was elected member of parliament for Greenwich in April, 1857, and sat till 1859, when he was appointed governor of Gibraltar. The colonelcy of the 23d fusiliers was bestowed upon him in 1860, and he was promoted to the rank of general in July, 1863. CODRUS, the last king of Athens, son of Melanthus, reigned, according to tradition, about 1068 B. C. The legend relates that when Attica was invaded by the Dorian Heraclidæ from Peloponnesus, the oracle declared that those would be victorious whose king should be slain. Codrus thereupon determined to sacrifice himself, entered the camp of the enemy in disguise, provoked a quarrel with the common soldiers, and was slain in the fray. The Dorians, having learned the death of the Attic king, abstained from hostilities and returned home; and the Athenians, thinking no one worthy to succeed Codrus, abolished the kingly dignity, and instituted in its stead the office of archon. Medon, son of Codrus, was the first archon.

COEHORN, or Cohorn, Menno van, baron, a Dutch general and engineer, born in Friesland in 1641 (according to some in 1632), died at the Hague, March 17, 1704. A captain at the age of 16, he distinguished himself at the siege of Maestricht, and at the battles of Senef, Cassel, St. Denis, and Fleurus. During the intervals of active duty he devoted much attention to the subject of fortification, with the view of equalizing the chances between besiegers and besieged, the new system of his contemporary Vauban having given great advantages to the latter. While a young man he gained a name as an engineer, and by the time he had reached middle life was recognized as the best officer of that arm in the Dutch service. The prince of Orange promised him a colonelcy, but as he was remiss in fulfilling the pledge, Cochorn retired in disgust, with the intention of offering his services to the French. His wife and eight children, however, were arrested by order of the prince as hostages for his return, which quickly brought him back, when he received the promised rank, and was afterward appointed successively general of artillery, director general of fortifications, and governor of Flanders. His whole life was spent in connection with the defences of the Low Countries. At the siege of Grave, in 1674, he invented and for the first time made use of the small mortars called cohorns, for throwing grenades, and in the succeeding year elicited the applause of Vauban by successfully crossing the Maas, and carrying a bastion which was considered as protected by the river. After the peace of Nimeguen (1678) he was employed in strength

ening various already strong places. Nimeguen, Breda, Bergen-op-Zoom, and other fortresses, attest the value of his system. The last named place he considered his masterpiece, but it was taken after a long siege in 1747 by Marshal de Löwendal. During the campaigns from 1683 to 1691 he was in active service. The siege of Namur in 1692 gave him an opportunity to test his system against that of Vauban, for these two great engineers were there opposed to each other, Coehorn in defending a work which he had constructed to protect the citadel, and Vauban in attempting to reduce it. Coehorn made an obstinate defence, but, being dangerously wounded, was compelled to surrender to his rival. He was afterward engaged at the attacks on Trarbach, Limburg, and Liége, and in 1695 aided in retaking Namur. In the war of the Spanish succession he besieged successively Venloo, Stephensworth, Roeremond, and Liége; and in 1703 he took Bonn, on the Rhine, after three days' cannonade of heavy artillery aided by a fire of grenades from 500 cohorns. Next he passed into Flanders, where he gained several successes over the French, and subsequently directed the siege of Huy. This was his last service, for he died soon afterward of apoplexy, while waiting a conference with the duke of Marlborough on the plan of a new campaign. Coehorn's greatest work, Nieuwe Vestingbouw (fol., Leeuwarden, 1685), was translated into several foreign languages. His plans are mostly adapted to the Dutch fortresses, or to those which are similarly situated on ground but a few feet above water level. Wherever it was practicable, he encircled his works with two ditches; the outermost full of water, the inner dry, and usually of the width of about 125 ft., serving as a place d'armes for the besieged, and in some cases for detachments of cavalry. The theory of his system, both of attack and defence, was the superiority of a combined mass over isolated fire. Professionally, Coehorn was accused of wasteful expenditure of life, in which respect he contrasted unfavorably with Vauban, who was sparing of men. He refused inducements offered by several foreign governments. Charles II. of England knighted him. He was buried at Wijkel, near Sneek, in Friesland, and a monument was dedicated there to his memory. His biography was written by his son Theodorus (new ed., by Sypestion, 1860). For his system of fortifications, see Zastrow, Geschichte der Befestigung (3d ed., 1854).

COELLO, Claudio, a painter, born in Madrid, of Portuguese parents, in 1621, died there in 1693. He excelled both in color and design, and was made painter to Charles II., for whom he executed many works in the Escorial. His chief work is the altarpiece in the sacristy, representing the ceremony of the collocation of the host. His works are numerous in Madrid, Salamanca, and Saragossa.

COELUS. See URANUS.

COEUR, Jacques, a French merchant and royal treasurer, born at Bourges near the end of the 14th century, died in the island of Scio, Nov. 25, 1456. He was at first one of the masters of the mint at Bourges, and afterward engaged in commerce on a vast scale, visiting Egypt and Syria, establishing depots throughout the East, and covering the Mediterranean with his ships. Thus he acquired a great fortune and attracted the attention of Charles VII., who in 1435 appointed him head of the French mint, and afterward treasurer. His excellent management of affairs caused the king to ennoble him, and to intrust him with high functions in the French provinces, and with diplomatic missions in Italy. Coeur contributed 200,000 crowns to help the king in rescuing Normandy from the English. After the successful end of the war, his influence became so great as to give offence to envious persons, who after the death of the king's mistress, Agnes Sorel, charged him with having poisoned her, and caused him to be arrested (1451), and his vast property to be confiscated. Although the charge was proved to be groundless, he was detained in prison till 1455, when he effected his escape. Repairing to Rome, he was kindly received by Pope Nicholas V., and was enabled to gather the broken remains of his fortune. Pope Calixtus III. selected him in 1456 as captain general of a fleet against the Turks. On this expedition Coeur was overtaken by illness, died, and was buried in the church of the Franciscans in Scio. He had vainly implored the clemency of Charles VII. in favor of his family. Under Louis XI. his memory was exculpated from all charges, and a part of his property was afterward restored to his descendants.See Jacques Cœur et Charles VII., ou la France au XVe siècle (2 vols., Paris, 1853).

CŒURS D'ALENE (Awl-hearts), an Indian tribe in Idaho and Washington territories, of the Selish family, although their dialect differs greatly from others of the language. They call themselves Skizoomish, or Skitzuish, but are known generally by the above name, given them by the French voyageurs. They were poor, distrustful, and cruel, and lived on fish, roots, and small game, not visiting the bison grounds. Although estimated in 1822 at 2,000, they numbered but 300 in 1870. In 1841 Father De Smet visited them. In 1842 a Catholic mission was begun, which was removed in 1846 to a place 30 m. from Coeur d'Alêne lake (the source of Spokane river), where they had a church, a mill, and dwellings. The tribe became Christians, but viewed with jealousy the entrance of whites into their country; and in 1858 their chief, Vincent, with 100 warriors, joined Kamiakin, the Yakama chief, in his attack on Col. Steptoe. They were defeated by Col. Wright in the battles of Four Lakes and Spokane plains, and have since been peaceful. A part of the tribe in Idaho had a reservation set apart for them by an executive order of June 14, 1867; and by order of July 2, 1872, those in Paradise valley

were removed against their protest to a reservation between the Okinakane and Columbia rivers and British America.

COFFEE (Turkish, kahve), the seeds of the plant coffea Arabica, of the order cinchonacea; also the beverage prepared by infusion or decoction of them in boiling water. In southern Abyssinia the plant grows wild in great profusion, and there it has been in use from very remote times. Its name is therefore generally derived from Kaffa, the name of a district S. of Abyssinia. It also grows wild in western Africa. The coffee-producing belt of the world lies between the isothermal lines of lat. 25° N. and 30° S. The plant grows at an altitude as high as 6,000 ft. above the sea; but it does not flourish where the temperature is below 55°. It thrives in warm situations upon the slopes of hills and in soil not retentive of rain. The cultivation of coffee is widely diffused throughout the tropics, the

principal countries being Brazil, Java, Ceylon, Sumatra, the isle of Réunion, the western coast of India, Arabia, Abyssinia, the West Indies, Central America, Venezuela, Guiana, Peru, Bolivia, and some of the Pacific islands. The plant attains the height of 8 to 20, and sometimes 30 ft. The trunk is covered with a grayish bark, and its white flowers grow in thick clusters around the branches. It is usually kept down by pruning to about 5 ft. in height, to increase its productiveness and for convenience in gathering the fruit. The slender and pliable branches then spread out and bend down like those of an apple tree. The plants are raised from the seed in nurseries, and when a year old are transplanted and set out in rows. In three years they begin to yield fruit, but are not in full bearing till the fifth year; they continue to yield for 20 years or longer. The leaves, of oblong-ovate and pointed form, grow in pairs, one opposite the other. They are four or five inches long, smooth and shining, and of dark green color. The plant being an

evergreen, the foliage is always fresh; and though at certain seasons the blossoms suddenly appear scattered among the dark leaves like flakes of snow, they are hardly ever entirely absent. They continue to put forth while the fruit of former blossoms is coming to maturity, and so the ripe coffee may be gathered at almost every season; but the real harvests are usually two, and sometimes three, in the course of the year. The fruit when ripe becomes red and finally dark purple. It resembles a cherry, and the fleshy portion which surrounds the seeds is very sweet and palatable. Each berry contains two seeds; their flat sides are opposed to each other in the centre of the pulp, and are separated by a thin layer of this and by the tough membrane which closely envelopes both. Sometimes one seed is abortive, and the other becomes round. This is the case with the Wynaad coffee from India, and the so-called "male berry coffee. As the fruit dries, the pulp forms a sort of shell or pod, which is removed by a process of curing in order to prepare the seed for market. In the West Indies the fruit is picked by hand at intervals during the seasons of harvest; but in Arabia, where no rains prevail which would beat it from the trees, it is allowed to remain till ready to fall, and is then shaken off upon cloths spread upon the ground. Its perfect ripeness may be one reason of its superior quality. It is next dried in the shade, and the pulp is afterward removed by hand. In the East and West Indies and South America the curing is usually performed by exposing a layer of the fruit several inches in thickness to the heat of the sun, so that fermentation takes place. When the moisture has disappeared, the dried fruit is passed between wooden rollers, and sometimes pounded in wooden mortars, and the pulp is then washed away. The tough membrane is separated after the seeds are dry by a similar process with a heavy pair of rollers. The chaff is next removed by winnowing. From Ethiopia the use of coffee is said to have been introduced into Persia as early as A. D. 875, and into Arabia from the latter country or from Africa about the 15th century. The earliest written accounts of the use of coffee are by Arabian writers of this period; and it appears that in the city of Aden it became in the latter half of this century a very popular drink, first with lawyers, studious persons, and those whose occupations required wakefulness at night, and soon after with all classes. Its use gradually extended to other cities, and to those on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean. It is said to have been publicly sold in Constantinople in 1554, and to have found its way thence to Venice in 1615. Rauwolf, a German (in 1582) is said to be the first European who makes mention of it. The plant is described in the works De Plantis Egypti and De Medicina Egyptiorum of Prospero Alpini, 1591 and Burton in his "Anatomy of MelanVOL. V.-2

1592.

choly" (1621) is supposed to be the first English writer who notices it. "The Turks," he says, "have a drink called coffee (for they use no wine), so named of a berry as black as soot and as bitter, which they sip up as warm as they can suffer, because they find by experience that that kind of drink so used helpeth digestion and procureth alacrity." A Greek servant of a Turkey merchant opened the first coffee house in London in 1652, the first in England having been opened a year before at Oxford by a Jew, Jacob. At the close of the century the annual consumption of coffee in the kingdom amounted to about 100 tons. Its culture was introduced into Java from Arabia by the Dutch between 1680 and 1690, and it was thence extended throughout the East India islands. In 1715 Louis XIV. received from the magistrates of Amsterdam a fine coffee tree, then bearing both green and ripe fruit. This, according to Du Tour, was the stock of all the West India coffee. The Dutch introduced its cultivation into Surinam in 1718. (See H. Welter, Essai sur l'histoire du café, Paris, 1868). The raw coffee beans are tough and horny, difficult to reduce to powder, and consequently require a preparatory roasting, that water may take up their soluble ingredients. Even after this the hardness of the fragments is such that the genuine particles may by this quality be distinguished from those of other substances used as adulterants. The average composition of raw coffee, as determined by M. Payen, is in 100 parts: Cellulose.. Water.. Fat..

Glucose, dextrine, and organic acid.

Legumine and caseine.

Other nitrogenous substances.......
Caffeine (free)...

34.00 12:00

10 to 13:00

15:50

10.00

8:00

0.50

3.5 to 5:00

0.001

0.002 6.70

Caffetannate of caffeine and potassium..
Viscid essential oil (insoluble in water).
Aromatic oils, some lighter, others heavier than water.
Ash.

Some authorities state that it contains from 6 to 8 per cent. of cane sugar; in the roasting this must be nearly or quite all converted into caramel. The most important principles are the caffeic acid, resembling in its astringent character, and also in containing much gluten, the tannin of tea; the alkaloid, caffeine, which is identical with the theine of tea; and the fragrant volatile oil, called caffeone. This oil is distinguished by the microscope in minute drops in the cells or between the outer membrane and the body of the seed, and may be taken up by distillation with water. Roasting disperses it through the solid substance, and in part or wholly expels it, if the process is pushed too far. The caffeic acid, especially, is modified by roasting, and is supposed by chemists to afford the greater portion of the flavor and peculiar properties of the coffee. The proportion of caffeine is only about one half that of theine in an equal weight of tea. (See CAFFEINE.) Coffee when roasted loses its hygroscopic water, which should first be allowed to