that Himilco found himself obliged to surrender on terms sparing the lives of himself and his Carthaginians, but abandoning all his auxiliaries to the vengeance of the Syra

cusans.

The Carthaginians sent another armament under Mágo, a nobleman of high rank, to repair their losses in Sicily, but these forces were routed with terrible slaughter, Mágo himself being slain. His son, the younger His son, the younger Mágo, being reinforced from Africa, won a great victory over the Syracusans; and Dionysius was obliged to sue for peace, which was concluded on terms honorable to both parties.

After this war in Sicily, a frightful plague carried off multitudes of the inhabitants of

Carthage, B. C. 347. Immediately after this, insurrections broke out in the African provinces of Carthage and in the Carthaginian colonies of Sicily and Sardinia; but the Carthaginian Senate by a policy of firmness, tempered by conciliation, overcame these threatened dangers, and the state recovered its former vigor and prosperity.

Meanwhile Syracuse was torn by domestic troubles following the death of Dionysius I., who, though called a tyrant by the Greek historians, was a wise and prudent monarch. Says Scipio Africanus: No one ever concerted his schemes with more wisdom, or executed them with more energy than the elder Dionysius." His son and successor, Dionysius II., was a profligate sovereign, whose excesses were a cause of tumult and distraction to the state. The CarthaginThe Carthaginians took advantage of the internal dissensions in Syracuse with great eagerness, to execute their favorite design of conquering Sicily; and a large armament was equip ped for the purpose and placed under the chief command of Mágo, B. C. 346.

In his first attack Mágo made himself master of the harbor of Syracuse. The Syracusans, destitute of money, solicited the aid of the Corinthians, and Timóleon, one of the greatest generals and purest patriots of antiquity, was sent to their aid. A large portion of the Carthaginian army had been levied in the Greek colonies. Timó

leon, appealing to their patriotism, addressed letters to the leaders of these mercenaries, remonstrating with them on the disgrace of bearing arms against their kindred. Hearing of these intrigues of Timóleon, and thus distrusting his Greek mercenaries, Mágo returned to Carthage. The Carthaginians. were aroused to the highest pitch of indignation at the unexpected termination of the campaign, and Mágo committed, suicide to escape their wrath. New forces were raised to retrieve their losses in Sicily. Hannibal and Hamilcar were appointed to the command, and were entrusted with an army of seventy thousand men, and a fleet of two hundred war-galleys and a thousand ships of burden. Timóleon hastened to meet the invaders, though his forces scarcely numbered seven thousand men. He unexpectedly attacked the Carthaginian army on its march, near the river Crinísus, and the Carthaginians, completely surprised, were routed in confusion. The Syracusans took one town after another, until finally the Carthaginian Senate was obliged to solicit peace and to accept the terms dictated by the triumphant Syracusans.

While Carthage was thus unsuccessful abroad her liberties were menaced with destruction. Hanno, one of the chief men of the state, determined to make himself master of his country by poisoning the leading men of the Senate at a banquet. This nefarious plot was foiled by its timely discovery, and the chagrined traitor determined to openly rebel. Arming his slaves, twenty thousand in number, Hanno took the field, inviting the native African tribes to join his standard, but this appeal was disregarded. Before Hanno could collect fresh forces, he was surrounded by an army hastily gathered, his followers were routed, and Hanno himself was made prisoner. He was put to death with the most cruel tortures, and, in accordance with the barbarian custom of Carthage, his children and nearest relatives shared his fate.

Fresh dissensions in Syracuse gave the Carthaginians a new pretext for interfering in Sicilian affairs. Agathocles, an intrigu

ing demagogue of low extraction, had acquired great influence among his countrymen, and, finally, by the secret aid of the Carthaginians, became master of the state. But he displayed so little gratitude that he announced his intention to drive the Carthaginians from the island. The Carthaginian Senate at once sent Hamilcar with a formidable army against Agathocles, who was utterly defeated and forced to shut himself up within the walls of Syracuse. The city was soon besieged, but Agathocles assembled the Syracusans and declared that he would save them from all dangers if an army and a small sum of money were placed at his disposal, saying that his plan would completely fail if he disclosed its nature. Thereupon an army of liberated slaves was hastily levied, the sum of fifty talents was intrusted to his discretion, and a fleet was raised secretly. When all was ready Agathocles declared his design of transporting his forces into Africa, and alarming the Carthaginians into the evacuation of Sicily.

Eluding the vigilance of the blockading squadron, Agathocles safely arrived in Africa before the Carthaginians were aware of his designs, B. C. 309. He cut off all opportunity of retreat by burning his transports, for the purpose of inspiring his soldiers with a resolution to conquer or die. He then boldly advanced, stormed Tunis and several other cities, dividing their plunder among his soldiers, and instigated the native African princes to revolt against Carthage. Hanno and Bomilcar were sent to check the progress of this bold invader, with forces four times the size of the Sicilian army; but they were decisively defeated by Agathocles, who followed up his success by storming the Carthaginian camp, where he found heaps of fetters and chains, which the Carthaginians, in proud confidence of victory, had prepared for the Sicilian invaders.

This unexpected defeat produced dreadful consternation at Carthage. Hamilcar, who was prosecuting the siege of Syracuse with vigor, was surprised by the unexpected order to return home to defend his own country. He raised the siege and sent five thou

sand of his best troops, and, after supplying their place with fresh mercenaries, he again invaded the territories of Syracuse, but was unexpectedly attacked, defeated and slain.

Ophellas, King of Cyrêné, had joined Agathocles with all his forces; but the King of Syracuse, jealous of his influence, caused him to be privately poisoned. Having thus rid himself of his rival, Agathocles thought he could safely return to Sicily and leave his army in Africa under the command of his son. But in his absence all the results of his former victory were lost; as the army threw off all restraint and discipline, while the Greeks, indignant at the murder of Ophellas, withheld their contingents, and the African princes returned to their allegiance to Carthage. Hearing of these disorders, Agathocles hastened to remedy them, but utterly failed and fled back to Sicily, leaving both his sons and his soldiers to their fate. Indignant at this desertion, the Syracusan army surrendered to the Carthaginians; and Agathocles soon afterward died either from grief or poison.

After the death of Agathocles the Carthaginians renewed their intrigues in Sicily and soon gained a controlling influence in the island. The Greek colonies, in alarm, solicited the aid of Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, who had married a daughter of Agathocles, and who was then in Italy defending the colonies of Magna Græcia against the Romans (B. C. 277). Pyrrhus took every Carthaginian town in Sicily, except Lilybæum, but soon returned to Italy; and the fruits of his victories were lost, notwithstanding the efforts of Hiero, King of Syracuse.

The result of the wars in Sicily was not encouraging to the Carthaginians. Carthage had only succeeded in keeping possession of one third of the island at the cost of several hundred thousand lives, of large fleets, and of a vast treasure; but she had not advanced her possessions a single mile. Her armies had been generally beaten, when they encountered their foes on equal terms. The Carthaginian generals were usually inferior to those of the Greeks. Carthage had also discovered that descents could be

made upon her own shores, and that her African subjects could not always be relied upon. Yet she did not abandon her pur

pose. After the death of Agathocles the power of the Greeks in Sicily rapidly declined.

ARTHAGE was now about to enter a struggle with a new enemy-Rome. This gigantic struggle embraced three long wars covering more than a century, and included the three Punic Wars, the details of which will be related in the history of Rome. Pyrrhus, upon leaving Sicily, exclaimed to his attendants: "What a fine field of battle we are leaving to the Carthaginians and the Romans!" His prediction was soon fulfilled. A body of mercenaries called Mamertines, in the pay of Agathocles, after the death of that king, treacherously seized the city of Messina and massacred all the inhabitants. Hiero, King of Syracuse, took the field against the Mamertines and defeated them in battle. Half the Mamertines invoked the aid of the Carthaginians and gave the citadel in their possession, while the other half sought the protection of Rome. The Romans granted the aid required, invaded Sicily, took Messina by siege and routed the Carthaginians with terrible slaughter. This was the beginning of the First Punic War, which lasted twentythree years (B. C. 264-241), the details of which will be found in our account of Roman history. In this war Carthage lost Sicily and her supremacy in the Western Mediterranean, and in consequence all her other insular possessions. The mercenaries mutinied and besieged Tunis. They then marched against Utica, while the light African cavalry, that had also mutinied, ravaged the country to the very gates of Carthage. The mutineers were only subdued after they had reduced the fairest provinces of the republic to a desert waste. cenaries in Sardinia had likewise revolted; and the Romans, in violation of the late

The mer

peace, seized the island, and Carthage was not in a position to resent this injury.

Hamilcar Barca, grieved at the evident decline of his country, formed a plan to elevate it again to an equality with its insolent rival by completely conquering the Spanish peninsula. His son Hannibal, then only a boy of nine years, earnestly requested permission to accompany his father on this expedition; but before granting the request, Hamilcar led the boy to the altar and made him swear eternal enmity to Rome.

For nine years Hamilcar commanded the Carthaginian forces in Spain, and conquered the whole peninsula by force or negotiation. He used the treasures he acquired to strengthen his family's influence in the state, depending mainly on the democracy for support against his powerful rival, Hanno, who had the chief influence among the aristocracy.

Hasdrubal, Hamilcar's son-in-law, inherited his power and his projects. It is thought that he designed founding an independent kingdom in Spain after failing to make himself absolute in Carthage. He founded a magnificent new capital in that country, naming it Carthago Nova (new Carthage)—now called Carthagena—in a region where the richest silver-mines were opened; and large bribes were sent to Carthage to allay jealousy or stifle inquiry. He exerted himself to his utmost to conciliate the native Spaniards, and married a daughter of a Spanish king. The Romans, alarmed at his success, at length forced him to sign a treaty, by which he agreed not to cross the Iberus (now Ebro), nor to attack the territory of the Greek city of Saguntum, an ally of Rome.

When Hasdrubal fell a victim to an as

sassin's dagger, the family of Barca was sufficiently influential to obtain Hannibal's appointment as his successor, though he had scarcely reached his legal majority, B. C.

221.

The youthful commander, after gaining several victories over the Spaniards, besieged and captured Saguntum, thus causing the second war with Rome, whose details will be found in our account of Roman history.

During this Second Punic War (B. C. 218 -201), the Carthaginian navy, the source of the greatness and security of the state, was neglected; and party spirit also distracted Carthage with violence. At the close of the war Carthage was deprived of all her foreign possessions outside of Africa, and her fleet was surrendered to the Romans. Thenceforth Carthage was virtually only a commercial city under the protection of Rome. The Romans, by entering into an alliance with Massinissa, King of Numidia, raised up a powerful rival against Carthage in Africa itself, and that monarch seized most of the western Carthaginian colonies.

Notwithstanding his recent reverses, Hannibal yet remained at the head of the state in Carthage, and reformed several abuses that had crept into the management of the public finances and the administration of justice. By these wise reforms Hannibal aroused the antagonism of the factious nobility who had previously fattened on public plunder. They united with the old rivals of the Barcan family, and even went so far as to act as spies for the Romans, who still feared the abilities of Hannibal. As a result of their machinations, the old general who had made Rome tremble for her existence was forced to flee from the country he had so long and so faithfully served; and after some years of exile the old victor of Trasimenus and Cannæ poisoned himself to escape the malignant enmity of the Romans, who even persecuted him in exile and by threats forced the King of Bithynia to deny him protection. The mound marking his last resting-place is a remarkable object to this day.

The Carthaginians soon had cause to la

The

ment the loss of their greatest leader. Romans were not conciliated by his exile; and Massinissa, depending upon their support, made frequent raids into the Carthaginian territories. Both parties accused each other of aggression before the Roman Senate (B. C. 162); and though both received an equal hearing, the decision had long before been settled in Massinissa's interest. During the progress of these negotiations Carthage was distracted by political dissensions. The popular party ascribed the low condition into which the republic had sunk to the animosity shown by the aristocratic faction to the Barcan family, and particularly to Hannibal, because of his financial and judicial reforms; and a tumultuous assembly of the people banished forty of the leading Senators, exacting an oath from the citizens that they would never allow them to return. The exiles sought refuge with Massinissa, who sent his sons to intercede with the Carthaginian populace in their favor. The Numidian princes were denied permission to enter the city, and were even driven from the Carthaginian territory. This insult caused another war between Carthage and Numidia, in which Carthage was defeated and forced to accept a humilitating peace.

The Roman Senate, under the constant solicitations of the elder Cato, at length determined upon the complete destruction of Carthage. To provoke Carthage into a war, the Romans made one arrogant demand after another, all of which the Carthaginians, conscious of their weakness, readily obeyed. The Carthaginians gave three hundred noble children as hostages, surrendered their ships of war and their magazines of arms; but when the Romans finally demanded that they should abandon their city and consent to its destruction, they took courage from despair and absolutely refused to obey, making the most vigorous exertions to defend their city to the last. War at once resulted. The Romans were almost uniformly successful; and after a struggle of four years (B. C. 149-146), the Third Punic War ended in the fall of Carthage, which was taken by storm and completely