appointment of Galib Pacha as grandvizier (the fifth since 1821), and of Sadik as reis effendi, in December, 1823, the more moderate party obtained the ascendency. On the other hand, the dissensions among the Greeks daily increased.

A Russian chargé d'affaires in Constantinople, Mr. de Minziaky, tried to restore, in January, 1824, the connexions between the cabinet of St. Petersburg and the Porte, which had been broken off since 1821. The principal subject of negotiation was the complete evacuation of the two principalities of Walachia and Moldavia by the Turkish troops, in conformity with the treaties of Kainardgi, Jassy and Bucharest. The British ambassador, lord Strangford, and the Austrian internuncio, the baron von Ottenfels, supported the demands of Russia. Lord Strangford was treated with great regard by the Porte; for it was owing to British influence that the Porte had been able to conclude its last treaty of peace with the court of Persia (Jan. 28, 1824). But the support which certain societies in England, and individuals, like lord Byron, had given the Greeks, by means of loans, by sending arms, and by assistance in person, made the Porte indignant; and it required (April 9), that the British government should forbid their subjects to take any part in the affairs of the Greeks. In the mean while, the British officers who had fought under the Greek standard, had been recalled to England. The good understanding with Russia appeared still more complete, when a great number of neutral transport ships, Russian, Austrian and others, were hired by the capudan pacha, who sailed, April 28, out of the Dardanelles to destroy Ipsara and Samos. At the same time, Dervish, pacha of Widden, as commander-in-chief of the Ottoman troops, received an order to enter the Morea, whilst the pacha of Negropont, on the coast of Attica, and Omer Vrione (who was afterwards pacha of Saloniki), were to open the campaign on the west coast of Greece. The Porte had succeeded, too, in inducing Mohammed Ali, the viceroy of Egypt, to send from his troops, which had been trained in the European discipline by French officers, 20,000 men, under the command of Ibrahim Pacha, his son, besides a fleet with transport ships, consisting of hired Russian, Austrian, Spanish and Italian vessels, to assist the grand-signior in reducing the Greeks to submission. A fire in Cairo delayed, for some months, the departure of this expedition. In the mean time, after

the glorious issue of the campaigns of 1823, dissensions had broken out anew in Greece. The party of Mavrocordato, which had taken the place of the heads of the Hetaireia, was composed of Hydriot merchants, and the most enlightened men of the na tion. It endeavored to establish an orderly and legal administration, and to regulate the finances. Mavrocordato was president of the legislative body; but, retiring from the military party, which had the preponderance in the Morea, he went towards Western Greece. The heads of that military party, the capitani, appeared to wish to take the places of the former Turkish pachas, and oppressors of the country. One of the most eminent of this party was Colocotroni, who, through the fame of his victories (in 1822), was the most powerful in the executive council. From Tripolizza, in the midst of the peninsula, his faction extended itself on all sides. Panos, his son, commanded at Nauplia (Napoli di Romania), the seat of government. The garrison of the Acrocorinthus consisted of the adherents of that bold, proud and rich general. After Colocotroni, came Mavromichalis, formerly bey of the Mainots, and now the nominal president of the executive council. Negris, the former minister of foreign affairs, had joined Ulysses, who maintained himself in Athens and Eastern Greece, almost independently of the central government. These capitani raised, without regard to rules and orders, all that they wanted for themselves and their soldiers; so that only in the marine at Hydra, and in Western Greece, where Mavrocordato commanded, a well ordered government was maintained. In Missolonghi, lord Byron was taking an active part. He and colonel Stanhope organized the artillery. Byron himself established schools and printing-offices. In the mean time, the legislative senate at Kranidi (on the eastern shore of the gulf of Argolis) endeavored to check the arbitrary proceedings of the executive council. The report of the causes of complaint against the president, Mavromichalis, and other counsellors (Dec. 31, 1823), disclosed such striking instances of arbitrary and selfish conduct, that the senate dissolved the existing executive council, and named, as the members of the new, the Hydriot George Conduriotti as president, and the Spezziot Panajotis Botassis as vice-president. Both were good patriots, and the most influential men of their islands, but without distinguished talents. John Coletti was the third, and Nicholas Londos

portant points; even the women prepared themselves for the combat. Khosru left the shores of Mitylene early on July 3d, with two ships of the line, six frigates, ten corvettes, several brigs and galliots, a great number of newly-built gun-boats, and more than 80 European transport-ships. His fleet surrounded the island. The men-of-war began to fire upon the town and the forts. Whilst the principal attack appeared to be made here, a landing was effected on the opposite coast, upon a sandy point of land, where an Albanese battalion, under the traitor Goda, deserted the battery, after a short resistance. The Turks took by storm the heights back of the city. They were not able to maintain themselves there. The primates and ephori had the old men, women and children put on board the vessels in the harbor. Some vessels sunk, others were taken by the Turks. Some fugitives were received by two French frigates; the rest escaped, under the guidance of Apostolis, to Hydra. In the mean time, the city was attacked on all sides; the Greeks fought from street to street, from house to house; the work of destruction was kept up through the whole night. On the morning of July 4, they held only two small forts and the convent of St. Nicholas. After a hard struggle, these brave' men resolved to die all together in their last fort, Tabia. While the Turks were storming the walls, they set fire to the mine, which had been prepared; the earth shook, and Ipsara became the grave of its own heroes and the conquerors. This blow opened the eyes of the Greeks. The people and the authorities rose up for united resistance. Hydra and Spezzia manned their ships. Ipsara was retaken by the brave Miaulis (July 15), and the ships there saved. The enemy was repulsed by inferior forces at Samos, Cos and Chios; he suffered some loss at Candia, and the Greeks opposed him at St. Rumili, Trypiti, Mirabello and Lassidi. Equal success attended the Greeks upon the main land. Gouras conquered the barbarians at Marathon. The Turkish generalin-chief, Dervish Pacha, beaten in July, August and September, at Gravia, at Amplani, in the province of Phocis, retreated, with the loss of his baggage, to Larissa. His plan of joining Omer Vrione, at Salona, was thus wholly defeated. In Western Greece, Mavrocordato's vigorous measures frustrated all the plans of the bold and artful Omer Vrione, who had invaded, for the third time, Acarnania and Ætolia. The Greeks then undertook the offensive,

and pressed upon Arta. In the mean time, the authorities at Nauplia made loud complaints against the agents of some Christian powers in the Archipelago, who kindled the flame of discord, and checked the improvement of the internal administration. Nevertheless, order was constantly increasing in the Grecian government. The taxes were raised according to a just distribution, and the public lands regularly leased. The public credit was confirmed by a loan. Trade again revived, and the Greek flag was to be seen in Ancona, Leghorn, Marseilles, and even on the banks of the Thames. The government began again to organize an armiy according to the rules of European disci pline. The French military code was introduced in Greece. The administration of justice received a fixed character. A lower court of justice and a court of appeals were held at Missolonghi. The discussions before the courts were public. Freedom of the press was every where allowed. Four newspapers appeared twice a week:-in Missolonghi, the Grecian Chronicle and the Telegraph; at Hydra, the Friend of Law (the official paper); and at Athens, the Ephemerides. Education was also provided for. In the mean time, the second part of the bloody campaign began. The Egyptian fleet set sail from Alexandria, July 19, comprising 9 frigates, 14 corvettes, 40 brigs and galliots, and 240 transports, with 18,000 land forces. Ibrahim Pacha was to bring reinforcements to Candia, and then invade the Morea. The Greek government had put themselves in a hostile position with regard to the European powers. The secretary of state, Rhodios, in a letter to Canning, declined the proposal of a treaty with the Porte. On the other hand, England, through their lord high commissioner of the Ionian Islands, sir Frederic Adam, forced the Greek government to revoke (September 15) the proclamation issued June 7, in which they treated the European transports employed by the enemy, not as neutral, but hostile vessels. The Greek government issued a manifesto, in which they complained greatly of the shameful avarice of the Christian merchants, who violated so openly the law of neutrality, in favor of the Turks. The English government then acknowledged the right of blockade, properly exercised by the Greek government, and the Austrian internuncio issued a command to the consuls of his government to prevent all letting out of ships contrary to the neu. trality. Some Christian captains. how

2

ever, particularly the French, did subsequently let their ships to the Egyptians, and carried Christian captives from Greece as slaves to Africa-a proceeding which was denounced in the French chamber of peers (1826), by Chateaubriand, and then prohibited by law. Meanwhile, the Egyptian and the Turkish fleet united in the gulf of Bodroun (September 4), and some battles were now fought with the Greek fleet. The battle at Naxos (September 10) lasted the whole day. It was, perhaps, the first during the war that deserved the name of a naval engagement. The intrepid Kanaris blew up, with his fire-ships, an Egyptian frigate of 44 guns, and a brig. The Greeks lost ten small ships. At length, the Ottoman fleet broke off the engagement, and retired to Mitylene, with the loss of several transport-ships. Khosru then turned back to Constantinople, with 15 sail, and Ibrahim Pacha, with the rest of the fleet, to the gulf of Bodroun. He supplied the islands anew with troops and provisions, particularly Candia, which his father already regarded as a part of his viceroyalty. Miaulis soon after attacked him off Candia. Ibrahim lost a frigate, 10 small vessels, and 15 transport-ships. Weakened by the plague, which had appeared on board the ships, he drew back to the harbor of Rhodes, where the well known admiral Ishmael Gibralter died. His plan of attacking the Morea was frustrated for this year. After such exertions on the part of the Greek fleet, the insolent ambition of the military faction once more disturbed the harmony of the peninsula. When the elections for the third term of the government began, in October, the executive council at Napoli di Romania consisted of 63 members. Mavrocordato resigned his place as president of the senate, and Panuzzo Notaras became his successor. Colocotroni and his followers were disappointed in the choice of the executive council. The former members were reëlected. But unfortunate events checked the activity of the government. A contagious fever broke out in Napoli, of which the vice-president, Botassis, and Manuel Tumbasis, died. The president, Conduriotti, went, therefore, to Hydra. At the same time, a civil war arose (November, 1824). Colocotroni had openly declared against the reëlection of the executive council, and had drawn the military commanders to his side. The generals Kanellas, Papaganopulos, Andreas Londos and Notarapulos immediately left the siege of Patras, which had been intrusted

to them. Their troops dispersed. They, with their followers, placed themselves under the insurgent standard at Tripolizza, where Panos Colocotroni took the command of them. Conduriotti then turned back to Napoli di Romania (December 9), and summoned Gouras, Tassos and other commanders, from Attica to Corinth. Coletti received the chief command; Christos and Maurogeni appeared before Tripolizza. The rebels were beaten in several battles. Panos Colocotroni fell, and his followers were dispersed. The well known Amazon Bobolina, a follower of Colocotroni, fell by the dagger of a Greek, as it is said, the lover of her daughter, whose hand she had refused him. Ulysses, who had formed a secret union with the Turks at Negropont, was defeated by Gouras, taken prisoner, and confined in a tower, built by himself, for the defence of Athens. In attempting to escape from it, he fell to the bottom, and was killed. Colocotroni, the father, saw himself deserted by all, and surrendered in December, 1824. The other leaders of the rebellion fled to the Ionian Islands. Some surrendered; others were seized and (together with the elder Coloco · troni) carried to a convent, where they were judged by a commission. The Mainot bey Pietro Mavromichalis was acquitted. The government now labored to secure the obedience of the armies by law, and made preparations to invest Patras, Modon and Coron anew. Omer Vrione entered into a negotiation with the Greeks, but it was broken off (1825), and he re ceived the pachalic of Saloniki. The dis astrous issue of the campaign of 1824, by sea and land, excited in Constantinople again the hatred and anger of the factious. Hussein Aga, commander of the troops of the Bosphorus, the aga of the janizaries, the mufti, and Janib Effendi (a man 76 years of age, the most obstinate follower of the old Ottoman policy), united for the ruin of the grand-vizier. This faction would permit no kind of intervention of the Christian powers in the internal affairs of the Porte, and demanded loudly that, before the Porte evacuated the two principalities, Russia should restore the fortresses in Asia. The grand-signior saw himself obliged to dismiss the grandvizier, Ghalib Pacha, who was universally esteemed, although not very energetic. His successor, Mehemet Selim, pacha of Silistria, was a creature of Janib Effendi Hitherto, the English envoy had urged the evacuation of the principalities; but, being put off continually with promises

he at last left Constantinople (Oct. 18, 1824), having shortly before effected the conclusion of a treaty between the Porte and the king of Sardinia, and obtained some commercial privileges. He went, the following year, as British minister to Petersburg. The Porte felt constantly more sensibly the consequences of the war. It lost the revenue which had come from the provinces in rebellion. The tribute which the Peloponnesus alone used to pay, amounted yearly to 35,000,000 Turkish piastres. The grand-vizier determined to lay an extraordinary tax of 13,000,000 piastres upon Moldavia and Walachia, as a compensation for the occupation of the same since 1821. Most of the boyards withdrew themselves by flight. In vain the hospodars represented the unhappy condition of the provinces, which could hardly pay the customary tribute. The Turkish commanders took away all the money and other valuables which they found in the public treasuries or among the possessions of the rich. Some Turkish troops now withdrew from the provinces, and Minziacky, who appeared as the Russian agent, announced the approach of a Russian ambassador, the marquis de Ribeaupierre, with full powers; but new troops soon marched again into the principalities; for more than 100,000 Russian soldiers remained on the frontiers, ready for instant service. The campaign of 1825 was opened in the Morea by the landing of Ibrahim Pacha. Reschid Pacha besieged Missolonghi at the same time, and the capudan pacha aided both by his fleet. While these dangers threatened Greece, her ruin was accelerated by the capitani. Ibrahim Pacha, before mentioned, was permitted to land (Feb. 22, 1825), with 4500 men, between Coron and Modon, and was strengthened in the beginning of March, so that his force amounted to 12,000 men. His army,owing to their European tactics,French leaders, the use of bayonets, and a disciplined cavalry, was far more to be dreaded than the undisciplined host of Turks. Thus Ibrahim began the siege of Navarino, the key of the interior of the Peloponnesus. In vain Miaulis attacked with his fleet that of the enemy, on the night of the 12th of May, when he burned an Egyptian frigate, two corvettes, three brigs and many transport-ships. In vain Mavrocordato did every thing, by personal exposure, to animate the courage of the garrison of Navarino, which was reduced to extremity. Conduriotti found no obedience as he approached for the relief of the place.

The inactivity of the capitani, who would give no uid to the Hydriots and the gov ernment, was the cause of the capitulation of Navarino; after which Ibrahim pressed on, without resistance, to Tripolizza. In this danger, the government saw themselves compelled to pardon the old Colocotroni, and, after receiving a solemn promise of fidelity from him, to give him the command of the Peloponnesus. This happened in the last of May, 1825. In the mean time, Reschid Pacha forced his way into Acarnania and Ætolia, after he had beaten the Greeks at Salona. April 22, the third siege of Missolonghi and Anatolico began. The capudan pacha did not arrive sufficiently soon to support the attack on the side of the sea. He lost several ships in May, near capo d'Oro, in an engagement with the Greek admiral Sactouri, and reached Modon at the end of this month. Ibrahim had already taken Calamata, and occupied Tripolizza, which the Greeks, in their retreat, set on fire. He pressed on, destroying every thing, and reached even Argos. Napoli di Romania itself was threatened by him. But, after the battle of the mills, at the distance of two leagues from the capital, he was obliged to draw back to Tripolizza, in the midst of repeated attacks from Colocotroni's army. This continued to be the centre of his enterprises. Not one Greek village obeyed his command to submit and receive his protection, so that he laid waste every thing, put to death the men, and sent the women and children as slaves to Egypt. In the defence of Missolonghi, the spirit of the Greeks appeared more clearly than ever. The garrison refused every exhortation to surrender. Noto Botzaris stood first among the brave. The Turks, with 35,000 land forces and 4000 sea forces, were wholly defeated (Aug. 2, 1825), after a contest which lasted several days. The Turks lost 9000 men. ing the struggle, Miaulis arrived, burned several Turkish ships, and forced the fleet to retire. The siege was raised Oct. 12, 1825, four months and a half after the opening of the trenches. Ibrahim Pacha spread more and more widely the terror of his arms. The government found it self in great danger. It had lost, almost entirely, the confidence of the auxiliary societies, even in England, because the money from the English loan had not been properly laid out. The English party then exercised much influence over the Greek government, through their sec retary of state, Mavrocordato; and, after an interview with the British commo

Dur