The asserting of the freedom of the press in America is not presumptuous. Rather would it be a libelous statement to declare such an assertion premature and displeasing to Americans. Lovejoy is therefore entitled to greater praise than the revolutionists who died for taxation without representation. For thought is better than taxes, and James Otis, who was eloquent when England taxed him, would have been indignant if he had been silenced.

I. Opening

89. For clearness begin at once with the topic; for force begin with something friendly if the topic is objectionable to the audience; for interest when an audience is tired or distracted begin with a comparison, with a humorous incident, or with an impressive fact.

Unless the topic is hateful and its sudden proposal may interfere with persuasion, let the proposition of the speech be told at once to the audience. General introductions are usually trite and are ineffective because the audience, not knowing what is to follow, does not see the application.

II. Proposition

90. For clearness have a proposition with one subject and one predicate. If there are more predicates, they should be closely connected. (Unity.)

In courts, in lawmaking assemblies, and in debates, the proposition is determined before the speech is composed. The speaker's duty is to understand clearly the point at issue. On other occasions of public speaking the proposition and even the subject are often left to the choice of the speaker. In that case he should

91. For interest take a proposition which will be for the audience, useful, novel, and challenging.

See methods of limiting the topic of an essay. A proposition which every one would at once agree to, does not challenge attention, as, Columbus was a great man. Put the proposition in one of these ways:

Useful:

There are worlds still to be discovered with the courage of

Columbus.

The spirit of Columbus should be our inspiration.

A Columbus should be governor of our State.

The life of Columbus must be read by every American.

Our city should have a Columbus pageant.
How could we educate a Columbus to-day?

Novel:

How Columbus could have failed.

The sunshine and shadows of the great sailor.

What would Columbus say to this audience?

The failure of success should be the epitaph of Columbus.
America should be called Columbia.

Was the discovery of America Columbus' greatest deed?

Challenging:

What was the leading quality of Columbus' soul?

Columbus or Washington, who deserved greater gratitude?.
Columbus is the ideal sailor of history.

What one of Columbus' virtues led him to discover America.
Was Columbus a better mariner than manager of men?
Could Columbus help discovering America?

Was Columbus more honored in his foes or in his friends?

EXERCISE 44

Make good propositions for these subjects:

1. Washington, Lincoln, or any local or national hero of Church or State.

2. Home gardening, Libraries, Labor Unions, Music, Theaters, Advertising, Ideals, Newspapers, Colleges, etc.

3. For a nomination, for the opening of a new school, for unveiling a monument, for a public holiday, for the Red Cross or other organization, for the presentation or acceptance of a gift.

4. For entering or leaving an office, for graduation, for school studies, or societies, for a class dinner, for a labor convention.

5. Introducing a distinguished visitor, praising a patriot, scholar, or saint, starting a school paper, supporting an athletic or debating team, presiding at a business meeting.

III. Continuation and Close

92. If the proposition has not been stated and explained in the opening, explain and prove it in the body of the speech, using the methods of exposition and argumentation.

The argumentation of a speech should not be abstract or lengthy. Proofs should be grouped under headings, stated clearly, reiterated with variety, embodied in a story or historical incident, enlivened by comparison with objects known to the audience, and then driven home in forceful phrase and pointed epigram. In preparing a speech, imagine the listeners before you and compose as if you were writing them a letter, with the directness but not with the intimate familiarity of a correspondent. See passages from Phillips, Meagher, and other speakers, quoted in this book.

93. Close the speech with a summing up of the proofs and with an appeal urging the desired action.

Summing up of proofs may be also made after each main division of the speech, and there too may be given appeals less intense than at the close. A mere catalog of proofs, following the order of the speech, will be clear; but for interest and better effect disguise the summary in questions or in some other novel form suggested by the matter of the speech. Demosthenes, honored for putting a wall about Athens, summed up his alliances, financial methods, and other deeds as the real wall he had built. In appealing, avoid the repetition of "let us," which has become trite. Use rather the imperative. The appeal and summary may be closely united and so both be made more forceful. See passages from Curran and Webster (Exercises 27, 3 and 29, 1).

EXERCISE 45

1. Write the speeches for which you made propositions in the last exercise.

2. Write a speech on Columbus, with a proposition given above. 3. Write speeches for historical characters in critical circumstances. (See Webster's Imagined Speech of Adams.)

94. Comprehend the question exactly, understanding the meaning of every word (definition).

Political and legislative debates strive to win votes, and use persuasion as well as argumentation. In school debates persuasive appeals and exhortations are not in place. Prejudices against either side of the question should indeed be guarded against. The real work, however, is argumentation, delivered directly, vigorously, and interestingly. Historical, literary, and practical questions, in which facts furnish the chief proof, are better for highschool students than speculative questions involving the discussion of abstract principles..

95. Establish precisely the particular point upon which both sides agree to differ (point at issue).

The method of exposition often used is that which explains what the question does not mean and what it does mean.

Far be it from me to deny the unapproachable grandeur and simplicity of Holy Scripture; but I shall maintain that the classics are, as human compositions, simple and majestic and natural, too. I grant that Scripture is concerned with things, but I will not grant that classical literature is simply concerned with words. I grant that human literature is often elaborate, but I will maintain that elaborate composition is not unknown to the writers of Scripture. I grant that human literature cannot easily be translated out of the particular language to which it belongs; but it is not at all the rule that Scripture can easily be translated either - and now I address myself to my task. - NEWMAN: Literature.

96. After the exposition or in connection with it, as Newman does in the passage just quoted, state the headings under which the proofs have been grouped (division) and the order to be followed by your side. Then prove the proposition, closing with an appropriate and vigorous summing up.

The arrangement of proofs in the order of strength is best, where possible. The order of time is clear and often better in questions of history. Dwell on the strongest arguments and group those

that are less strong. A debate should not be a spoken essay but a real speech with all the directness of the spoken word. Note how Lincoln speaks directly to his audience and contrast the style with that of essays.

He tries to show that variety in the domestic institutions of the different states is necessary and indispensable. I do not dispute it. I have no controversy with Judge Douglas about that. I shall very readily agree with him that it would be foolish for us to insist upon having a cranberry law here, in Illinois, where we have no cranberries, because they have a cranberry law in Indiana, where they have cranberries. I should insist that it would be exceedingly wrong in us to deny to Virginia the right to enact oyster laws, where they have oysters, because we want no such laws here. I understand, I hope, quite as well as Judge Douglas or anybody else, that the variety in the soil and climate and face of the country, and consequent variety in the industrial pursuits and productions of a country, require systems of law conforming to this variety in the natural features of the country. I understand quite as well as Judge Douglas that if we here raise a barrel of flour more than we want, and the Louisianians raise a barrel of sugar more than they want, it is of mutual advantage to exchange. That produces commerce, brings us together, and makes us better friends. We like one another the more for it. And I understand as well as Judge Douglas, or anybody else, that these mutual accommodations are the cements which bind together the different parts of this Union, - that instead of being a thing to "divide the house," figuratively expressing the Union, they tend to sustain it; they are the props of the house, tending always to hold it up.

But when I have admitted all this, I ask if there is any parallel between these things and this institution of slavery? I do not see that there is any parallel at all between them. Consider it. When have we had any difficulty or quarrel amongst ourselves about the cranberry laws of Indiana, or the oyster laws of Virginia, or the pine-lumber laws of Maine, or the fact that Louisiana produces sugar, and Illinois flour? When have we had any quarrels over these things? When have we had perfect peace in regard to this thing which I say is an element of discord in this Union? We have sometimes had peace, but when was it? It was when the institution of slavery remained quiet where it was. We have had difficulty and turmoil whenever it has made a struggle to spread itself where it was not. I ask, then, if experience does not speak in thunder-tones, telling us that the policy which has given peace to the country heretofore, being returned to us, gives the greatest promise of peace again.

LINCOLN: Debate with Douglas.