THE HE principle on which particular classes of men and institutions have been created and provided for by government, is that of their general utility. The obvious illustrations of this principle are to be found in the public offices of the government itself, and in the organization of the military and naval service of the country. The origin of our colleges in America, it is well known, was the need of suitably educated men to fill the professions of medicine, law, and divinity, and the posts of public trust connected with state affairs. These institutions, however, are limited in their design to the diffusion of the learning and science already in existence in the world, and contribute nothing, except incidentally, to their further advancement. Hitherto no steps have been taken in this country, and very little has been done in England, either by government or by voluntary contribution, except what has resulted from the efforts of scientific men themselves, unaided by the rest of the community, to carry forward the various branches of human knowledge to a higher condition. On the continent of Europe, different, and, it must be acknowledged, more enlightened views have prevailed as to the public utility of a higher cultivation and greater improvement of the sciences, and the obligation of the ruling powers to found and foster institutions having this object in view.

The organizations for the purpose have been of two kinds, the Academy and the University.

The term Academy is employed "to denote a society of learned men, associated for the purpose of advancing the arts and sciences, and communicating to the world the discoveries which are made either by its own members or by other learned individuals." The first institution of the kind, in modern times, was that established by Charlemagne, by advice of his preceptor Alcuin. It was composed of the learned men of the court, at the head of whom was the emperor himself, and had for its object to promote a taste for polite literature and improve the language of the country, which was at that time in a very rude state. As this object could only be attained by a careful study of the compositions of antiquity, it was required of each member to give an account of the ancient authors he had read, and communicate his remarks upon them.

The overthrow of the Roman Empire by the Turks in 1453 drove several Greek VOL. II.-12

scholars to settle in Italy, where they established schools which became the basis of the academical institutions that arose in the surrounding countries. In Italy the number of academies increased with such rapidity that in a short time they amounted to 550, the city of Milan alone having 25. Among the most celebrated of the Italian Academies was the Academia Lyncei, established at Rome in the beginning of the seventeenth century, for the advancement of the physical sciences. It was composed of the most eminent philosophers of the age, among whom was Gallileo.

About the middle of the sixteenth century was established what was afterwards called the Academia Florentina, or Florentine Academy, the attention of which was directed chiefly to Italian poetry. It has produced many excellent works; and for the last two centuries has included most of the eminent characters of Italy.

The Academia della Crusca gave to the world the Italian Dictionary, a well known work of great merit, and Torricelli delivered in this academy many of his philosophical discourses.

The Academia Bononiensis was founded at Bologna by Eustachio Manfredi in 1690. At the early age of 16, this young man associated with himself some of his companions with the view of discussing those subjects which, in the course of their studies, occupied their attention. In 1714, this academy was united with the Bononian Institute, which was a kind of college under the protection of the senate. and richly endowed by Clement XI. and Benedict XVI., as well as by the liberality of private individuals. Not only were persons of both sexes admitted members of the academy, but several ladies were raised to professorships, some of whom became very eminent. The celebrated Signorina Agnesi, of Milan, after the production of her great mathematical work, was elected a member of the Institute of Bologna by acclamation, and the Pope conferred on her the title of Professor of Mathematics in the University of that city.

The place in which the academy met was an enormous building containing above 40 apartments, with many halls below them; the cabinet of natural history is provided with ample specimens in the three kingdoms; the library contains above 120,000 volumes, not including the valuable manuscripts which fill a whole apartment, and the separate apartments

that are allotted for study are furnished with an individual library for each science. The celebrated hall of Anatomy contains exhibitions in wax of every part of the human frame, unequalled perhaps by any in the world, except those in Florence.

The Royal Academy of Sciences in Turin was instituted about the middle of the eighteenth century, and afterwards called, under the French rule, the Imperial Academy of Sciences, Literature, and the Fine Arts. Many volumes of its memoirs in quarto form a valuable portion of the library of Columbia College, in this city. Among the German Academies the most distinguished is the Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin, founded by Frederick I., after the model of the Royal Society of London. A large number of the volumes of its memoirs also enrich the library of Columbia College.

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The Royal Society of London was incorporated by royal charter in 1663, though founded in 1645, the king and the Duke of York entering their names as members. It was a voluntary association of, at first, a small number of men engaged in similar pursuits, not supported by government. It numbers at present 766 fellows. Each pays on entrance £10, and an annual subscription of £4. large library of books, a museum of natural history, and a collection of apparatus belong to this society. Since 1800 it has published a volume of transactions every year. From 1565 till 1800 it had published 90 volumes. There is a donation fund for assisting scientific men in their researches, and four medals adjudged yearly as prizes, known as the Rumford medal, the Copley medal, and two Royal medals.

The Royal Society of Edinburgh is of a similar character.

The Astronomical Society of London, in the first volume of its memoirs, published in 1822, thus states the object of its formation:

"Owing to the great perfection which the construction of optical instruments has attained in England, and the taste for scientific research universally prevalent, there have arisen in various parts of the kingdom a number of private and public observatories, in which the celestial phænomena are watched, and registered with assiduity and accuracy, by men whose leisure and talents peculiarly adapt them for such pursuits: while others, with a less splendid establishment, but by the sacrifice of more valuable time, pursue the same end with equal zeal and perseverance. Considerable collections of valuable observations have thus originated; by far the greater part of which, however, owing to the expense and difficulty of publication

and various other causes, must inevitably perish, or at least remain buried in obscurity, and be lost to all useful purposes; unless collected and brought together by the establishment of a common centre of communication and classification, to which they may respectively be imparted.

"One of the first great steps towards an accurate knowledge of the construction of the heavens, is an acquaintance with the individual objects they present: in other words, the formation of a complete catalogue of stars and of other bodies, upon a scale infinitely more extensive than any that has yet been undertaken; and that shall comprehend the most minute objects visible in good astronomical telescopes. To form such a catalogue, however, is an undertaking of such overwhelming labor, as to defy the utmost exertions of individual industry. It is a task which, to be accomplished, must be divided among numbers: but so divided as to preserve a perfect unity of design, and prevent the loss of labour which must result from several observers working at once on the same region, while others are left unexamined. This great desideratum, it is presumed, will be attained by a society founded on the model of other scientific institutions, having for one of its objects the formation of a collection or deposit of manuscript observations, &c., open at all times to inspection. Mem. Ast. Soc., Lond., vol. 1, pp. 2-4.

One of the results is the splendid British catalogue of 10,000 stars.

The publication of its memoirs and monthly notices has contributed not a little to the impetus given to astronomical science of late years in England and in this country.

The Royal Spanish Academy was established at Madrid in 1714.

The Royal Academy of Sciences at Lisbon in 1779. It is divided into three classes, that of Natural Sciences, Mathematics, and national Literature. It has an allowance from government which has been sufficient to establish an observatory, a museum, a library, and a printing-office.

The Royal Academy of Science of Petersburg was conceived by Peter the Great, but carried out by his successor Catharine, who settled a fund of about £5000 sterling per annum for the support of the academy. Fifteen members, eminent for their attainments, were admitted under the title of Professors, and salaries appointed to them out of the public fund. Among these were the celebrated Nicholas and Daniel Bernoulli. The fund was subsequently more than doubled. academy was divided into three classes, . 1st, Geography and Astronomy; 2d, Physics and Mathematics; 3d, Mechanics. The Royal Academy of Sciences at Stockholm had its origin from six private

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persons, of whom Linnaeus the celebrated naturalist was one. Professor Silgestróm, who, in a recent visit to this country for scientific purposes, made so favorable an impression, and who has just published a work on American education, is a salaried member of this academy.

The Philosophical Society at Philadelphia, which, in past years, has enrolled the names of some of our most eminent scientific men, has been latterly on the decline. The volumes of its transactions

contain some very valuable

papers.

Among them, one on the Coast survey of the United States, by its late superintendent. Professor Hasler, published in 1825.

The Philosophical Society of this city, of which the late Dr. Hossack was so efficient a promoter, has for some time ceased to exist.

The most admirable academical model at the present day is the French Institute. The predecessor of this, the Royal Academy of Science, was founded in 1666, by Louis XIV., whose minister, Colbert, was instructed to form a society of men distinguished for learning and talent, who should meet under the royal protection and communicate their respective discoveries. They were chosen from among the most celebrated in Physics, Mathematics, History, and the Belles-lettres. This academy was abolished at the Revolution, and the National Institute was established in its place. It was at the suggestion of Condorcet, in 1795. The following is the 1st article of its organization by the law of 3 brumaire, year IV, 25th Oct., 1795.

"The National Institute of Science and Arts belongs to the whole Republic; it is fixed at Paris; it is designed, 1st, to perfect the sciences and arts by uninterrupted researches, by the publication of discoveries, by correspondence with learned foreign societies; 2d, to pursue, conformably to the laws and decrees of the Executive Directory, the scientific and literary labors which shall have for their object general utility and the glory of the Republic."

It was composed of 144 members resident at Paris, and an equal number of associates spread over the Republic. The number of foreign associates permitted was 24. It was divided into three classes, each into many sections, as follows: the 1st class, or that of Physical and Mathematical sciences, contains the ten sections of 1. Mathematics, 2. Mechanic arts, 3. Astronomy, 4. Experimental Physics, 5. Chemistry, 6. Natural History and Mineralogy, 7. Botany and General Physics, 8. Anatomy and Geology, 9. Medicine and Surgery, 10. Rural Economy and the Veterinary art.

The 2d class, or that of moral and political sciences, six sections, 1. Analysis of sensations and ideas, 2. Morals, 3. Social science and legislation, 4. Political Economy, 5. History, 6. Geography.

The 3d class, or that of Literature and the Fine Arts, contain 8 sections. 1. Grammar, 2. Ancient Languages, 3. Poetry, 4. Antiquities and monuments, 5. Painting, 6. Sculpture, 7. Architecture, 8. Music and Declamation.

Each section was composed of six Parisian members and six country members.

The 8th article runs thus: "The Legislative corps will fix every year upon the presentment of the Directory a sum for the support and labors of the Institute."

The 9th article, thus: "For the formation of the Institute, the Executive Directory will nominate 48 members, who will elect the 86 others."

The 29th: "When an important work in the sciences, letters, or arts, shall have appeared, the Institute may propose to the Legislative corps to extend to the author a national recompense."

Such was the organization under the Republic. In the year XI. (1803) a new organization took place by a decree of the First Consul Napoleon. To the 1st class was added a section of Geography and Navigation, and the titles of the other sections were somewhat changed. On the classes was conferred the right of naming 100 correspondents among national and foreign savans. The 2d class, composed of 40 members, was "particularly charged with the perfecting of the Dictionary of the French language." The 3d class had for the object of its researches the learned languages, antiquities and monuments, history, and all moral and political sciences in their relations with history. They were to attach themselves particularly to enriching the French literature with Greek works. They were to occupy themselves with the continuation of diplomatic collections. This class could nominate 60 correspondents, national and foreign. 4th class was divided into 5 sections of the fine arts. The 11th article of the new organization prescribed that the Institute should receive annually from the public treasury 1500 francs for each of its members not associates, 6000 francs for each of its perpetual Secretaries, of which there are two in each class, and for its expenses a sum which shall be determined every year upon the demand of the Institute, and comprised in the budget of the Minister of the Interior.

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In 1816 the Institute was new modelled again by order of Louis XVIII., and composed of four Academies: 1. The French Academy, 2. The Royal Academy of In

scriptions and Belles lettres, 3. The Royal Academy of Sciences, 4. The Royal Academy of Fine Arts.

Under Louis Philippe the 1st article of the Ordinance relating to the Institute ran thus: "The ancient class of moral and political sciences is and remains re-established in the bosom of the Institute of France, under the title of the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences. It is divided into 5 sections, to wit: 1. Philosophy, 2. Morals, 3. Legislation, Public Law and Jurisprudence, 4. Political Economy and Statistics, 5. History and General Philosophy.

As at present constituted, the five Academies of the Institute are composed as follows: The French Academy of 40 members, and one perpetual Secretary and Treasurer. The Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres, of 40 members; ten free academicians, called, under Louis XVIII., academicians, and formerly honorary members, who are attached to no particular section; eight foreign associates, with one perpetual Secretary and 50 correspondents.

The Academy of Sciences is divided into 11 sections. The first five are of the mathematical sciences. Section 1, Geometry, has the following members: Biot, Ponsot, Libri, Sturm, Lamé, Binet. The 2d, of Mechanics, 6; the 3d, of Astronomy, the 6 following, Mathieu, Liouville, Laugier, Mauvais, Leverrier, Faye. 4, Navigation, 3 members, 5. General Physics, 6, among whom we find the names of Gay Lussac, and Duhamel. Under the general head of Physical Sciences are comprised the 6th section, Chemistry, containing 6 members, among them Thenard. The 7th, Mineralogy, 6 members; the 8th, Botany, 6 members; the 9th, Rural Economy, 6 members; 10th, Anatomy and Zoology, 6; the 11th, Medicine and Surgery, 6. There are two perpetual Secretaries of this academy, one of whom is the celebrated Arago, 10 free academicians; 10 foreign associates. The 1st section, Geometry, has 5 correspondents; the 2d, 5; the 3d, Astronomy, has 15, and among the names are those of Encke, Herschell, Struve, Airy, Carlini, and Captain Smyth. The 4th, Geography and Navigation, 7 correspondents, includ ing the names of Scoresby, Parry, Sir John Franklin, and Prince Demidoff. The 5th section, 9, among them Brewster and Barlow; the 6th, 9; the 7th, 8; the 8th, 10; the 9th, 10; the 10th, 10: in the list of whom is to be found the name of Agassiz; the 11th, 8.

The Academy of Fine Arts has 14 members in the 1st section, that of Painting, among them Horace Vernet; 8 in the

2d, Sculpture; 8 in the 3d, Architecture; 4 in the 4th, Engraving; 6 in the 5th, Musical Composition, one perpetual Secretary, and one honorary perpetual Secretary, 10 free academicians, 10 foreign associates; the following are among the names: Rossini of Bologna, Meyerbeer of Berlin, Overbeck of Rome; 40 correspondents and 4 honorary correspondents.

In the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences are 5 sections, and in each 6 members. In that of Philosophy we meet the name of Victor Cousin. In the 4th section, that of Political Economy and Statistics, that of the baron Charles Dupin; in the fifth, that of History, those of Michelet and Thiers. In this academy are 5 free academicians and 5 foreign associates; one perpetual Secretary. Among the associates are Lord Brougham and Mr. Hallam.

A powerful organization this for the advancement of science, literature, and the arts, and a fit model for any that may hereafter arise.

It was the want of something of this kind, and the consequent inferiority of England to France in scientific achievements in every department, which led, a few years since, to the formation in England of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, a voluntary association of scientific men, one of the prime original objects of which was to influence the government, by the authority of so respectable a body, to form something which would answer the purpose of the Institute of France.

Through all the changes of government in the latter country, from the Republic through the Consulate, the Empire, the restoration, and the limited monarchy of Louis Philippe, but one opinion seems to have been entertained as to the political expediency of maintaining the Institute as one of the most important elements of the public welfare and the national glory.

Associations like the British first sprung up in Germany, and seemed to have for their object to bring together the scattered rays of scientific genius not concentered in the universities and academies of science in the great capitals. An association of this kind has within the last half dozen years been formed with great success in our own country, and will no doubt exert a salutary influence upon both the general and State legislatures, which, indeed, it has already done on various scientific questions of importance to the whole community as well as upon the general interests of science. Every professor occupying a scientific chair is ex officio a member on subscribing his name to the articles