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9. In quoting the words of others use direct discourse where there is likely to be ambiguity.

Thus, "The boy said to his companion, 'Your coat is torn.""
Not, "The boy told his companion that his coat was torn."

10. Avoid placing a noun between another noun and its relative or other pronoun.

Thus, "One of Washington's generals, Lafayette, who was a Frenchman, returned to his own country after the close of the war." Not, "Lafayette, one of the generals under Washington, who was a Frenchman, returned to his own country at the close of the war." 11. Keep words and clauses that are grammatically connected as close to each other as possible.

Thus, "The day on which I first met him will long be remembered."

Not, "The day will long be remembered when I first met him."

12. Repeat the subject or a word relating thereto when the omission would violate clearness.

Thus, "He is advocating claims which are really being prejudiced by his speeches, and he is unwilling that any one shall take his place."

Not, "He is advocating claims which are really being prejudiced by his speeches, and is unwilling that any one shall take his place."

13. Repeat the relative when it is the subject of several verbs. Thus, "The work was not that of his friends, but that of his enemies."

Not, "The work was not that of his friends, but of his enemies."

2. STRENGTH.

The quality of style here referred to is known variously as Strength, as Force, and as Energy.

Strength consists in such use and arrangement of words as makes a forcible impression on the mind of the reader or hearer. The words of a sentence may be

so arranged as to express clearly the meaning of the author, and yet not impress the reader. Something more than clearness, therefore, is necessary to make one's composition impressive.

Energy of thought belongs to invention, but energy of expression has reference solely to the arrangement and use of words, so as to convey the ideas with force. The special faults which interfere with the strength of a sentence are the following:

1. The Use of Unnecessary Words.-Generally, whatever words add nothing to the force of a sentence detract from that force. Unnecessary words are of three classes, arising respectively from Tautology, from Redundancy, and from Verbosity.

Tautology consists in the repetition of the thought; as, "A royal edict was issued by the king."

Redundancy consists in the addition of circumstances not necessary to the sense; as, "They both fell dead in the field together."

Redundancy occurs frequently in the use of unnecessary adjectives. It is not necessary that all adjectives should be stricken out of composition, as they usually enrich style; but where they add nothing to the sense of the sentence they should be discarded.

Verbosity consists in the use of unnecessary words, not, however, repeating the thought.

Thus, in the sentence, "Have you got a dollar in your pocket?" the word got is unnecessary.

Pruning Necessary. In the first production of a composition a writer is apt to violate Strength by the use of unnecessary words. It is wise, therefore, to examine the work after the first draught has been completed, sentence

by sentence, and to strike out all words that do not add thought. In spoken composition it is allowable to repeat the thought, but in different language, for the reason that a single statement of a fact or a truth may not always put the entire audience in possession of the statement. It is said of Webster and others, whose style was formed mainly by practice in public addresses, that they frequently repeated the thought, but always by varying the language.

EXERCISE.

Reconstruct the following sentences, naming the error in each:

1. What have you got to sell?

2.

Let observation, with extensive view,

Survey mankind from China to Peru.

3. Keep off of the grass.

4. The very first discovery of it strikes the mind with an inward joy, and spreads a cheerfulness and delight through all the faculties.

5. Common usage is not uniform and invariable.

6. He gives an interesting account of their ascent up the mountain-side.

7. If I had not been absent, if I had been here, things would be different.

8. We retired for the night full of many hopes for our success on the morrow.

9. A strait is a portion of water that connects two larger bodies of water together.

10. Cast your eye in retrospect back over the past.

11. This seems to be the universal opinion of all men.

12. The annual anniversary of the society is celebrated on the eighth of January each year.

13. Our house is quite near to the station.

14. The statement is wholly and totally false.

15. They implored divine help from on High.

16. The boys disputed for half an hour, until they were both

mutually angry.

17. Let us wait until they all rise up.

18. From whence cometh my help?

19. I am sure that this is the very identical knife I lost.

20. I am sorry to learn that you are not well, that your health is not good.

21. The whole of the statement is true from beginning to end. 22. I would not hardly undertake the task.

23. The object of the conjunction is to connect words together.

2. An Improper Use of Connectives and Words of Transition. The words employed to mark connection or transition are relative pronouns, conjunctions, and prepositions.

The following are the chief cautions to be observed: a. Connect the parts of a sentence by either a relative pronoun or a conjunction, but not by both.

In the following sentence, "Mr. Waters, a gentleman of excellent reputation, and who lives next door to us, presided over the meeting," the connection is made by the relative "who," and the conjunction "and" should therefore be omitted.

The conjunction is, however, employed between two relative or subordinate clauses, as it serves to make the proper connection.

Thus, "The general, whom all feared, yet whom all honored," etc.

b. Avoid the Too Frequent Use of the Conjunction.-A sentence is usually weakened by the too frequent use of the same conjunction, as in the following:

"He is thoroughly conversant with American literature; and he is well acquainted with many American writers, and often quotes from their writings."

The sentence could be improved as follows:

"He is thoroughly conversant with American literature; he

is also well acquainted with many American writers, and often quotes from their writings.

Exception. When it is desirable to give the mind time to rest or to dwell on each of the particulars enumerated, the conjunction may be repeated with good effect.

Blair's Remark.-On this subject Blair makes the following remark:

"It is a remarkable peculiarity in language that the omission of a connecting particle should sometimes serve to make objects appear more closely connected; and that the repetition of it should distinguish and separate them, in some measure, from each other. Hence, the omission of it is used to denote rapidity, and the repetition of it is designed to retard and to aggravate. The reason seems to be, that in the former case the mind is supposed to be hurried so fast through a quick succession of objects that it has not leisure to point out their connection; it drops the copulatives in its hurry, and crowds the whole series together, as if it were but one subject. When we enumerate with a view to aggravate, the mind is supposed to proceed with a more slow and solemn pace; it marks fully the relation of each object to that which succeeds it; and, by joining them together with several copulatives, makes you perceive that the objects, though connected, are yet in themselves distinct-that they are many, not one."

Notice the effect of both the repetition and the omission of the conjunction in the following examples:

Love was not in their looks, either to God
Or to each other, but apparent guilt,

And shame, and perturbation, and despair,

Anger, and obstinacy, and hate, and guile.-Milton.

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And the rains descended, and the floods came, and the winds blew and heat upon that house; and it fell; and great was the fall of it."Matt. vii. 27, 28.

One effort, one, to break the circling host;

They form, unite, charge, waver,--all is lost.”—Byron.

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