justifications of the lamb in the fable against the wolf's charges.

The last remark to be made under this head, is, as to the difference between simply disproving an error, and showing whence it arose. Merely to prove that a certain position is untenable, if this be done quite decisively, ought indeed to be sufficient to induce every one to abandon it: but if we can also succeed (which is usually a more difficult task) in tracing the erroneous opinion up to its origin,-in destroying not only the branches but the root of the error, this will afford much more complete satisfaction, and will be likely to produce a more lasting effect. E. G. It has been repeatedly proved that the distinction, made by A. Smith and some other writers, between " productive" and "unproductive laborers," leads to absurd conclusions: but in the article on Political Economy in the "Encyclopædia Metropolitana" there is, in addition to this disproof, a clear and useful explanation given of the way in which this fanciful distinction arose; viz. from the different modes of paying different classes of laborers.

For another instance, see the Article Tendency' in the Appendix to "Elements of Logic," and the passage in the "Lectures on Political Economy" there referred to; which contains an explanation of the origin (from the ambiguity of a word) of a prevailing and most dangerous mistake.

The most ob

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The Arguments which should be placed vious arguments first in order are, cæteris paribus, the most have precedence. Obvious, and such as naturally first occur.

This is evidently the natural order; and the adherence to it gives an easy, natural air to the Composition. It is seldom

therefore worth while to depart from it for the sake of beginning with the most powerful arguments, (when they happen not to be also the most obvious,) or on the other hand, for the sake of reserving these to the last, and beginning with the weaker; or again, of imitating, as some recommend, Nestor's plan of drawing up troops, placing the best first and last, and the weakest in the middle. It will be advisable however (and by this means you may secure this last advantage) when the strongest arguments naturally occupy the foremost place, to recapitulate in a reverse order; which will destroy the appearance of anti-climax, and is also in itself the most easy and natural mode of recapitulation. Let, e. g. the arguments be A, B, C, D, E, &c. each

less weighty than the preceding; then, in re

Reverse

recapitulation.

capitulating, proceed from E to D, C, B, concluding with A.

CHAP. IV. - Of Introductions and Conclusions.

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AN Introduction, Exordium, or Proem, is, as Aristotle has justly remarked, not to be accounted one of the essential parts of a Composition, since it is not in every case necessary. In most, however, except such as are extremely short, it is found advisable to premise something before we enter on the main argument, to avoid an appearance of abruptness, and to facilitate, in some way or other, the object proposed. In larger works this assumes the appellation of Preface or Advertisement; and not unfrequently two are employed, one under the

name of Preface, and another, more closely connected with the main work, under that of Introduction.

The rules which have been laid down already will apply equally to that preliminary course of argument of which Introductions often consist.

The writers before Aristotle are censured by him for inaccuracy, in placing under the head of Introductions, as properly belonging to them, many things which are not more appropriate in the beginning than elsewhere; as, e. g. the contrivances for exciting the hearers' attention; which, as he observes, is an improper arrangement; since, though such an Introduction may sometimes be required, it is, generally speaking, any where else rather than in the beginning, that the attention is likely to flag.

Danger of announcing too much.

It is to be observed, however, that there is one kind of fault sometimes committed in Introductions, which does lead to this result. If a Speaker alarms his audience in the outset, by announcing a great number of topics to be handled, and perhaps also several preliminary considerations, prepar atory explanations, &c., they will be likely (especially after a protracted Debate) to listen with impatience to what they expect will prove tedious, and to feel an anticipated weariness even from the very commencement.

Introductions not to be composed first.

The rule laid down by Cicero, (De Orat.) not to compose the Introduction first, but to consider first the main argument, and let that suggest the Exordium, is just and valuable; for otherwise, as he observes, seldom any thing will suggest itself but vague generalities; "common" topics, as he calls them, i. e. what would equally well suit several different compositions; whereas an Introduction that is composed last, will

naturally spring out of the main subject, and appear appropriate to it.

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1st. One of the objects most frequently proposed in an Introduction, is, to show that the subject in question is important, curious,

Introduction inquisitive.

or otherwise interesting, and worthy of attention. This may be called an "Introduction inquisitive.” *

Introduction

paradoxical.

2dly. It will frequently happen also, when the point to be proved or explained is one which may be very fully established, or on which there is little or no doubt, that it may nevertheless be strange, and different from what might have been expected; in which case it will often have a good effect in rousing the attention, to set forth as strongly as possible this paradoxical character, and dwell on the seeming improbability of that which must, after all, be admitted. This may be called an "Introduction paradoxical." For instance : — "If you should see a flock of pigeons in a field of corn: and if (instead of each picking where and what it liked, taking just as much as it wanted, and no more) you should see ninety-nine of them gathering all they got into a heap; reserving nothing for themselves but the chaff and the refuse; keeping this heap for one, and that the weakest, perhaps worst, of the flock; sitting round, and looking on, all the winter, whilst this one was devouring, throwing about, and wasting it; and if a pigeon, more hardy or hungry than the rest, touched a grain of the hoard, all the others instantly flying upon it, and tearing it to

* See Tacitus in the opening of his "History;" and the beginning of Paley's Natural Theology.

pieces; if you should see this, you would see nothing more than what is every day practised and established among men. Among men you see the ninety and nine toiling and scraping together a heap of superfluities for one; (and this one too, oftentimes the feeblest and worst of the whole set, a child, a woman, a madman, or a fool ;) getting nothing for themselves all the while, but a little of the coarsest of the provision, which their own industry produces; looking quietly on, while they see the fruits of all their labor spent or spoiled; and if one of the number take or touch a particle of the hoard, the others joining against him, and hanging him for the theft.

"There must be some very important advantages to account for an institution, which, in the view of it above given, is so paradoxical and unnatural.

"The principal of these advantages are the following: ' &c.*

Introduction corrective.

3dly. What may be called an "Introduction corrective," is also in frequent use; viz. to show that the subject has been neglected, misunderstood, or misrepresented by others. This will, in many cases, remove a most formidable obstacle in the hearer's mind, the anticipation of triteness, if the subject be, or may be supposed to be, a hackneyed one: and it may also serve to remove or loosen such prejudices as might be adverse to the favorable reception of our Arguments.

Introduction preparatory.

4thly. It will often happen also, that there may be need to explain some peculiarity in the mode of reasoning to be adopted; to guard against some possible mistake as to the object proposed;

* Paley's Moral Philosophy, Book III. Part I. Ch. I. and II.