and desolation of so many thousand families, the scaffolds that have been erected in every part of Italy, the stifled groans from the victims in the dungeons of Naples, Rome, Milan, Florence, and elsewhere we must regret that no better result had been achieved than the restoration of civil and religious despotism in their worst forms.

It might be assumed that twenty-four millions of human beings, united in the bonds of one common language, origin and tradition, ought to have been able to carry out any enterprize, however difficult of execution; but the Italians have been so long politically and morally estranged from each other, and their local interests so artfully divided into different and opposite channels, it is more than doubtful, even had they succeeded, that their own private quarrels about the form of administration, precedency and seat of government, would not have entailed at least upon the present generation all the disasters of civil war.

Although it is easy to trace the errors of the past, and the causes which have led to the

failure of a great enterprize, it is more difficult to indicate the means which shall ensure success in any future attempt. It is at least to be hoped, for the sake of humanity, that the Italians will have agreed on the form of government they intend to adopt, should they again hoist the standard of revolution.

The establishment of a united Italy, a constitutional monarchy under the King of Sardinia, the only prince among the rulers of Italy who claims by descent an Italian origin, and the only monarch who has kept faith with his people, commands, as far as we have been able to judge, the greatest number of suffrages. Still it cannot be denied that a federation of republics on the model of that of the United States of America, by which a strong executive is combined with territorial division, is a form of government that has obtained great favour with young Italy. At all events, whatever may be the ultimate fate of this unhappy country, it is certain that the intense hatred entertained by the Italians towards their present rulers, aggravated as it is by foreign intervention,

would be sufficient at any time to unite the whole nation under one common standard, and no man can doubt who has witnessed the enthusiastic feeling of the people, that the day is not far distant when neither the French nor the Austrians will dare to consider as their lawful prey a people far superior to them in everything but numbers and military force.

CHAPTER V.

How the Papal Church acquired its temporal possessions

-The Countess Matilda d'Este and Pope Gregory VII.-Territorial divisions of Italy-How effected— Despotism of Austria contrasted with the Papal Government-French intervention and its effectsRe-establishment of priestly influence-Union of the sword with the crozier-Intrigues of the Jesuits— Alarming state of Italy-Politics and religion of the Italian people-Errors of the Papal Government as a ruling power-Signor Mazzini and the Triumviri of Rome-Their erroneous views-General observations.

WE may eulogize the truth and sincerity of some writers in having denounced the anarchical movements of 1848, and for recommending intervention as the only means of upholding the social fabric, at that time so fearfully

menaced in every part of the continent; but surely we may claim an exception from the denunciation in favour of Italy, since it is impossible to remain any length of time in that unhappy country without being painfully convinced of the accumulated and accumulating evils under which it suffers. We must also believe that no man possessed of the slightest spark of generous freedom or manly feeling will condemn its inhabitants for resorting to rebellion against the usurpation of foreign tyrants, whose rule has been one unbroken record of licentious spoliation, merciless persecution and religious intolerance. Even admitting that possession has in a manner legitimatized the sovereignty of Milan and its dependencies in the House of Habsburg, although founded on a radically defective title, what claim can that power adduce to Venice and its territories? In the same manner, if we study the history of Italy, and turn to that of the illustrious House of Este, we shall find an example of the manner in which sovereign power has been acquired by the pontiffs of