of the ass and horse species; but such instances are very rare. Mules have been much employed, both in ancient and modern times. The Roman ladies had equipages drawn by mules; and, at this day, in Spain, the coaches of the nobility, and cven of the princes, are usually drawn by them. Savoy produces very large ones, but the finest are bred in Spain. Mules are chiefly used in countries where there are rocky and stony ways, as about the Alps and Pyrenees, &c. They are sometimes fifteen or sixteen hands high. They are very proper for large burdens, and are remarkably sure-footed. They are much stronger for draught than our horses, are often as thick-set as dray-horses, and will travel several months together, with six or eight hundred weight on their backs. They are much hardier than the horse, cheaper kept, subject to fewer diseases, and will live and work twice as long. They take so much after the mare from which they are bred, that they may be procured of any kind, light or strong, as the owner pleases. The stubbornness complained of in them is owing only to ill

treatment.

MULE, in manufactures; a machine, invented by Crompton, in 1779, for producing finer yarn than was spun by the machines previously in use, and which has now nearly superseded the jenny. (See Cotton Manufacture.) For producing threads of the finest kind, a process is necessary which is called stretching, and which is analogous to that which is performed with carded cotton upon a common spinning-wheel. In this operation, portions of yarn several yards long are forcibly stretched in the direction of their length, with a view to elongate and reduce those places in the yarn which have a greater diameter and are less twisted than the other parts, so that the size and twist of the thread may become uniform throughout. To effect the process of stretching, the spindles are mounted upon a carriage, which is moved back and forwards across the floor, receding when the threads are to be stretched, and returning when they are to be wound up. The yarn produced by mule-spinning is more perfect than any other, and is employed in the fabrication of the finest articles. The sewing-thread spun by mules is a combination of two, four, or six constituent threads, or plies. Threads have been produced of such fineness, that a pound of cotton has been calculated to reach 167 rui'es.

MULGRAVE ISLANDS; an archipelago in

the Pacific ocean, lying between lat. 3° S. and 12° N., and lon. 160° and 177° E. It is composed of the groups of Browne, Raiick, Radack, Scarborough and Kingsmill. The name is also applied, in a more limited sense, to a small group of islands in the southern part of the group of Radack, lat. 6° N., lon. 173° E. This group was examined by lieutenant Percival, in the U. States schooner Dolphin, in 1825, more fully than had been previously done. (See Paulding's Cruise in the Pacific, and Visit to the Mulgrave Islands, New York, 1831.) The islands are low, of a coral formation, and producing the cocoa and bread-fruit trees. The inhabitants are lively, intelligent, timid and gentle. The group forms a circular chain of narrow strips of land, about half a mile wide, enclosing an inland sea 140 miles in circumference.

MULGRAVE, Constantine John Phipps, lord, born in 1744, early entered the naval service. In 1773, the British government having determined to send out an expedition to reach the north pole, captain Phipps received the command of the two bombvessels, Racehorse and Carcass, destined for the voyage. The latter was commanded by lieutenant Lutwidge, under whom Nelson was cockswain. The expedition left the Nore June 4th, and on the 29th arrived off Spitzbergen. It returned in September of the same year, after having reached 80° 48′ of north latitude, beyond which an unbroken and impenetrable field seemed to stretch to the pole. Lord Mulgrave inherited his title (Irish) on the death of his father, in 1775, and was afterwards commissioner of the admiralty. He died in 1792. See his Journal of a Voyage towards the North Pole (London, 1774).—His brother Henry was born in 1755, entered the army in 1775, served in N. America, as aid to general Knyphausen, and returned with the rank of lieutenant-colonel. In 1781, he was elected member of parliament, and entered fully into Pitt's system of politics. In 1792, by the death of his elder brother, Constantine John, he succeeded to the title and family estate. On the breaking out of the French war, he was employed in some confidential mission by Mr. Pitt. Mr. Pitt, in 1804, made him chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, and in 1807 he was nominated first lord of the admiralty. In 1812, he was removed from the admiralty to be master-general of the ordnance, and was raised to the rank of viscount and earl, by the title of viscount Normanby ana earl of Mulgrave. In 1818, he resigned the place of master-general of the ordnance to the duke of Wellington, but was.

by a special agreement, to hold a seat in the cabinet. He died in 1831. His son, Lord Normanby (q. v.) succeeded to his titles.

MULL; an island of the Hebrides. Its extreme length is 35 miles, and its greatest breadth is 30; superficial area, 420 square miles. The island is, for the most part, rugged and mountainous; and Benmore, the highest mountain, is supposed to be elevated three thousand feet above the level of the sea. Agriculture, of recent years, has been greatly improved. The land is more peculiarly adapted for grazing, and there is a very hardy race of black cattle, of small size. A considerable quantity of kelp is made. The principal village is Tobermory. Population, 9303. Lon. 6° W.; lat. 56° 30' N. Between it and the main land of Argyll and Inverness shires, is the sound of Mull.

MULLEIN. The common European mullein (verbascum thapsus) is now so extensively diffused throughout the U. States, appearing often at a distance from habitations, that most people can with difficulty be persuaded that it is not really a native. It grows in old fields, road-sides, &c., in barren soil, and is a conspicuous plant. The root is biennial; the stem simple, cylindrical, two or three feet high, and, together with the leaves, is covered with a very thick down. The flowers are yellow, almost sessile, and are disposed in a long cylindrical spike. It is of very little utility, and is avoided by all animals except goats. About eighty species of mullein are known, most of them natives of the regions about the Mediter

ranean.

MULLER, John. (See Regiomontanus.) MULLER, John von, the celebrated historian, born at Schaffhausen, in 1752, was the son of a preacher and schoolmaster there, and was indebted to his maternal grandfather for the future bent of his mind. Before he had learned to read, he had become familiar with the principal events of Swiss history, through the conversation of the kind and enthusiastic old inan. His diminutive size, shortness of sight, and delicate constitution, prevented him from engaging in the sports of his age, while his studious disposition and warm heart excited the hopes and won the affections of his elders. At the age of nine years, he wrote a history of his native city; and to the ancient classics, which he began to read secretly in his 13th year, he was indebted for that love of liberty, and moral grandeur, that clearness and nethod of thought, and elegance and en8

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ergy of expression, which appear even in his school exercises. Being intended for the church, he went to Göttingen in 1769, where his teachers were Michaelis, Walch, Less and Miller, and his favorite studies, exegesis and ecclesiastical history. The influence of Schlözer soon induced him to renew his historical studies, the first fruits of which appeared in his Bellum Cimbricum (1772). On his return to Schaffhausen, Müller preached with success, and was appointed professor of Greek in the gymnasium. Here he formed an inti macy with Charles Victor von Bonstetten, which gave rise to the admirable Letters of a young Scholar to his Friend (in German, published in 1802). Bonstetten procured him the place of family tutor, at Geneva; and the celebrated Bunnet afterwards received him into his house. The years 1777 and 1778 were spent in excursions through Switzerland, in studying the sources of Swiss history, and the ancient classics. During the winter of 1778, he delivered lectures on universal history. The substance of these lectures is given in the Twenty-four Books of Universal History, which form the three first volumes of his works. The first volume of his History of the Swiss was published at Berne (the title-page said Boston) 1780, and he soon after went to Berlin, where he published his Essais historiques. Although Frederic II (the Great) received him with distinction, no provision was made for him, and he was disappointed in his expectations of obtaining a place in the academy; he therefore left Berlin, and became professor of history at Cassel (1781). Here he produced his treatises De l'Influence des Anciens sur les Modernes, and De l'Établissement de la Domination temporelle du souverain Pontife au 8me. Siècle. In 1783, Müller returned to Geneva, and renewed his examination of the documents of the history of Switzerland. In 1786, he was invited to Mentz by the elector, with the post of librarian and court counsellor, and here published a new edition of the first volume, with a second volume of his history. Some political treatises, which he published at Mentz, contributed to extend his reputation, and to raise him to higher dignities at the electoral court. In 1791, the emperor created him baron of the empire, with a patent of nobility. When Mentz feli into the hands of the French (1792), Mül ler, who had no sympathies with the revolution, went to Vienna, and was made & member of the privy chancery of court and state. His pamphlets on the occasion

of the separate peace of Prussia, Die Uebereilungen und der Reichsfriede (1795), and those entitled Die Gefahren der Zeit, and Das sicherste Mittel zum Frieden (1797), are master-pieces of eloquence. In 1800, he was appointed first keeper of the imperial library, and now found time to devote to his historical studies, which had been interrupted by his political duties and the troubled state of the country. In 1804, he left Vienna, and went to Berlin, where he devoted himself entirely to his studies. Several treatises which he published on the History of Frederic II, on the Decline of Liberty among the Ancients, &c. are contained in the eighth volume of his works. He was preparing materials for writing the history of Frederic the Great, when the battle of Jena put a stop to his labors. Napoleon had a conversation with him at Berlin, and treated him with much distinction. The genius and kindness of the emperor won his esteem, and, in his discourse De la Gloire de Frédéric, delivered before the academy, he spoke of him in favorable terms. This made Müller an object of suspicion in Prussia: he was, therefore, more ready to accept a place at the university of Tübingen; but while on his way thither, received the information of his appointment as secretary of state to the kingdom of Westphalia, which post he entered upon with reluctance. He was finally permitted to resign it in 1808, and died in 1809. The first division of the fifth volume of his History of Switzerland was published in 1808. His complete works were published at Tübingen, in 1810, &c., in 27 vols. His Letters (vols. 4-7 and 13-18) contain important materials for forming a just estimate of his character. Heeren's Müller der Historiker (Leipsic, 1809) presents an impartial view of his services and his faults. His great work--Geschichte Schweizerischer Eidgenossenschaft-comes down only to 1489. It is distinguished for accuracy of research, profound and broad views, and, although minute, is not dry.

MÜLLER, Peter Erasmus, professor of theology at Copenhagen, born in that city in 1776, has thrown much light on northern antiquities, by his laborious and critical researches. Among his valuable productions are his Sagabibliothek (3 vols.), and Critical Inquiries into the Value of the historical Sources of Saxo Grammaticus and Snorre Sturleson. The former gives the contents of all the Icelandish sagas; the latter is a model of historical riticism Besides these works, he has

written treatises on the Golden Horn, on the Origin and Decline of Historiogra phy in Iceland; on the Importance of the Icelandish Language; and Ueber die Echtheit der Asalehre. Since 1815, he has been the editor of the Copenhagen Literary Journal (Kiobenhavnske laerde Efterretninger), which, since 1821, has appeared under the title of the Danish Literary Gazette (Dansk Literatur-Tidende).

MÜLLER, John Gotthard von, one of the most eminent engravers of Germany, born in Würtemberg, 1747, early displayed so much talent, that the duke sent him to Paris in 1770. Here he studied engraving under the celebrated Wille, made rapid progress, and was chosen member of the academy of arts. He was soon after invited to Stuttgard, by the duke of Würtemberg, as professor of the academy in that place, and there published the masterpieces by which he has become celebrated. His principal historical pieces are the Battle of Bunker Hill, from Trumbull, and the Madonna della Sedia of Raphael. He is particularly remarkable for the purity and softness of his burin. He died in 1830. His son John Frederic William, born at Stuttgard in 1782, was also a distinguished engraver. He received his education at the gymnasium in Stuttgard, and was instructed, by his father, in geometry and perspective. His attempts with the burin were successful beyond expectation, and, in compliance with the precepts and example of his father, he employed himself assiduously in the study of drawing. At the age of 20 years, he went to Paris, and applied himself with such excessive ardor as to injure his health; he likewise practised oil-painting, and executed three portraits from nature. While at Paris, he engraved the Venus of Arles for the Musée Français, and a statue La Jeunesse for Robillard: the latter exhibited a wonderful skill in imitating the appearance and expression of marble, on copper. In 1805, he painted and engraved the portrait of the crown prince, since king of Würtemberg; began the famous John, after Domenichino, and drew the St. Cecilia of the same master. In 1808, it was proposed to him, by Rittner, a dealer in works of art, to engrave Raphael's Madonna del Sisto, in the Dresden gallery; and, animated by the greatness of the undertaking, he determined to devote all his powers to its execution, and, previously, to study his art in Italy. In 1809, he returned from Italy, and entered, with his usual industry, upon his great work. In the mean time, he executed

several works, such as the portraits of Jacobi, Schiller and Hebel, and the Adam and Eve, after Raphael. In 1814, he was appointed professor in the Dresden academy of arts; but his health began to fail, and he exhausted the last remains of his mental and bodily vigor in the completion of his favorite work. He died in 1816, without having seen an impression of this splendid production.

MÜLLER, Frederic, usually called Maler Müller, or Müller the Painter, born at Creuznach, in 1746, published, as early as his 18th year, and subsequently, several collections of etchings (animals, compositions in the Flemish style, pastoral scenes, &c.), which were remarkable for their originality and freedom. In 1776, he went to Rome, and studied the works of Michael Angelo, but without much success. Like many of those who imitate that master, in attempting to copy his grandeur, he fell into an exaggerated style. As a poet, he deserves more credit. At a time when German poetry had degenerated into a mere versified prose, Müller appeared among the great writers who gave a new impulse to German literature. (See German Literature.) His complete works were published at Heidelberg (1811, 3 vols.). The principal are Niobe, Faust, and Genevieve. They are characterized by richness of fancy, warmth of passion, and elevated delineation of character, though sometimes wild and disconnected. He died at Rome, in 1825, in the 80th year of his age.

MÜLLER, Charles Ottfried, born at Brieg, 1797, was, at first, professor at the Magdalen gymnasium at Breslau; in 1819, was made extraordinary, and, in 1823, ordinary professor of philosophy at Göttingen. He has acquired great reputation by his ingenious and learned work, Geschichte Hellenischer Stämme und Städte (4 vols., Göttingen, 1820-1824),a part of which has been translated into English, under the title of The Dorians (2 vols., London, 1830). The text of the translation was revised by Müller, who made numerous alterations, corrections, and valuable additions, which render it, in fact, a new and improved edition of the work. His other works are Liber Egineticorum; Orchomenos und die Minyer; Prolegomena zu einer wissenschaftlichen Mythologie (1825), &c.

MÜLLER, William, a German poet, born at Dessau, 1795, studied at Berlin (1812), where his favorite branches were the historical and philological. The war of 1813 called him from his books, and he was present, as a volunteer, in the Prus

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sian army, at the battles of Lützen, Bautzen, Hanau and Culm. In 1814, he returned to his studies at Berlin, and cultivated the old German poetry and literature. His early display of talents had induced his father (a mechanic, in moderate circumstances) to allow him to follow his own inclinations; and, at Berlin, he had enjoyed the advantage of the instructions of Böckh, Buttmann, Rühs and Uhden. His journey to Italy (1819) produced his ingenious work Rom, Römer, und Römerinnen (Berlin, 1820); and, on his return to Germany, he became teacher of Latin and Greek, in the newly established school at Dessau, where he was also appointed ducal librarian. In 1824 appeared his Gedichte aus den hinterlassenen Papieren eines reisenden Waldhornisten, which displays great poetical merit. His Lieder der Griechen (1825) celebrates with poetic fire, the awakening of an oppressed nation, its struggle and its victory. His Lyrische Spaziergänge displays the same truth of nature, freshness and fire, and the same harmony of language, which characterize his other poems. He also contributed many critical papers to several German periodicals and encyclopædias, and his Homerische Vorschule (1824) is a work of much learning. His Bibliothek deutscher Dichter des 17 Jahrhunderts (10 vols., Leipsic, 1822—27) is a valuable collection of the best lyric poems of that period. He died in 1827. His works were collected in 5 volumes (Leipsic, 1830).

MULLET (mullus, L.); a genus of acanthopterygien fishes, distinguished by the oblique form of their head; by two long appendages under the chin, and large scales on the head and body, which are very easily detached. Their body is oblong, and generally of a red or yellow color; their head of a moderate size; their eyes situated close to each other. The most celebrated species is the M. barbatus, which is found in the Mediterranean. These fish were held in great estimation among the epicures of ancient Rome, and were sometimes sold for their weight in silver. Pliny gives an instance where near $300 were given for a single fish, of about three pounds weight. Juvenal also records the height to which luxury had attained in his days, in speaking of the prices given for the mullet-"Mullum sex millibus emit, Equantem su ne paribus sestertia libris." But the ex travagance of these conquerors of the world was still more strongly exemplified in the mode in which these fishes were served up: there was a vessel of water in

which the fishes were alive, in the eating room, whence it was conveyed immediately to the fire, and dressed in the same apartment. It was even customary to place them in glass vases, that the guests might be gratified by observing the changes of color which they underwent in expiring. Apicius, that prince of epicures, "nepotum omnium altissimus gurges," hit upon a mode of suffocating them in a certain pickle, which heightened their flavor. In modern times, they are but little esteemed, though their flesh is white, fat, and well tasted. The roes are known in Italy, under the name of botargo: they are prepared in a peculiar manner, and are highly prized.

MÜLLNER, Amadeus Gottfried Adolf, a celebrated Gerinan dramatist, born at Langendorf, near Weissenfels, in 1774, was educated at the Pforta school and the university of Leipsic, and settled in the practice of the law at Weissenfels. His early studies had been extensive, particularly in mathematics and German literature; but, for a time, he devoted himself entirely to his profession, wrote several esteemed law treatises, and, in 1805, was made doctor of law at Wittenberg. Several years later, a private theatre being established, principally at his suggestion, at Weissenfels, in which he appeared, with great success, in many parts, he was induced to write himself, and produced his Neunundzwanzigster Februar (1812). The favor with which it was received encouraged him to continue his labors; and his Schuld, which was written the next year, made him known throughout Europe, and was translated into English, French, and other languages. These pieces were the first of the dramas founded on fate, and owe their origin to Werner's Vierundzwanzigster Februar: at the same time they follow, though at a distance, the ancient tragedy. His King Yngurd (1817), and his Albaneserin (1820), were his next productions in this department. His comedies, some of which were published in 1815 (among them we may mention the Vertrauten, Die grossen Kinder, Die Onkelei), were less successful. Collections of them appeared in the Spiele für die Bühne (1815-1821), and Almanach für Privatbühnen (3 vols., 18171819). From 1820, he ceased to write for the theatre, probably on account of the cold reception of his two last tragedies, and devoted himself to literary and dramaturgical criticism. He had already contributed numerous articles to several periodical works, but he then became himself an editor From 1820 to 1825, be edited

the Literaturblatt of the Morgenblatt, and in 1823 conducted the Hekate, which soon, however, fell through. In 1826, he established the Mitternachtsblatt, which he edited till 1829. An edition of his works, edited by himself, was published at Bruns wick (7 vols., 1828), to which he added an eighth, under the title of Meine Lämmer und ihre Hirten (Wolfenbüttel), occasioned by and setting forth his quarrels with his former publishers. He died in 1829. A selection of his writings has since been published by professor Schütz (3 vols., Meissen, 1830), who has also written his life. As a critic, although often personal in his sarcasms, he was distinguished for his wit, judginent, and acuteness. His severe personalities engaged him in many disputes, both with authors and publishers. As a poet, Müllner is deficient in invention and depth of feeling; but his language is rich, sparkling, and highly poetical, but too epigrammatic; and his imagery is brilliant.

MULTIPLE, in arithmetic, is a number which contains another number a certain number of times. Thus eighteen is a multiple of six, or of three, or of nine, &c. Common multiple of two or more numbers is that which contains those numbers a certain number of times. Thus thirty-six is a common multiple of four and nine, being equal to nine times the first, and four times the second. To find the least common multiple of several numbers: reduce them all to their prime factors, then the product of the greatest powers of those prime factors is the least common multiple required. Let it be proposed to find the least common multiple of twelve, twenty-five and thirty-five, or the least number that will divide by each of them without a remainder. Here

12=3×22; 25-52, and 35=5×7; therefore 3 × 22 × 52 × 7=210, the least common multiple required.

MULTIPLYING GLASS, in optics; one wherein objects appear increased in number. It is otherwise called a polyhedron, being ground into several planes that make angles with each other, through which the rays of light, issuing from the same point, undergo different refractions, so as to enter the eye from every surface in a differ ent direction.

MULTIVALVES, in natural history; the name of a general class of shell-fish consisting of three or more shells.

MULTNOMAH; a river of Oregon Territory, which rises in about lat. 41°, among the Rocky mountains, runs about 500 miles through a country of extreme fertil