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at sixteen, of a woman at thirteen, was not a contract between the parties or a religious institution, but a handing-over of the bride to the family of her husband by her own family, she passing completely under the control of her husband, both as to person and property, subject to reference to a council of family relations.

So far the internal aspect of the family. Each family, however, was connected with other families, as in early Greece and Rome; and thus about fifty great clans were formed, of which the four principal were the Minamoto, Fujiwara, Taira, and Sugawara, all the families of which were, or claimed to be, descended Certain sacrifices were peculiar to each, and certain from a common ancestor. dignities confined to certain families. Thus the office of kuambaku was monopolized by the Fujiwara, and the shogunate by the Minamoto clans (the families in succession being, the line of Yoritomo, the Ashikaga, and the Tokugawa). This condition of society was analogous to that in Italy and Greece from 1000 B.C. to 500 A.D. But what is peculiar to Japan is that, with this primitive form of society remaining unchanged, we find a system that did not arise in Europe till Thus the superstructure of feudalism was rearabout the eleventh century A.D. ed on the basis of the family-an incongruous social edifice, as it seems to our minds.

A

In Japan, then, at the time of the formation of the code, the mikado and the imperial court were above, and not included in, the theory of feudalism, at the head of which was the shōgun, and beneath him the daimiōs, each with a territory of greater or lesser extent, which he farmed out to the samurai, or vassals, in return for military service. In the greater daimiōates these vassals underlet their lands on the same conditions; in other words, subfeudation was common. vassal not able, by reason of age or sickness, to perform this service abdicated in favor of his son. If a man died without leaving any children, natural or adopted, his property was retained for him by a legal fiction, for his death was concealed till permission was given by his lord for him to adopt a son, and only after such permission was given was his death announced. The necessity of having an heir, that the vassal's land might not escheat to the lord, but be kept in the vassal's family, greatly extended the practice of adoption. If the vassal proved faithless to his lord, both escheat and forfeiture were incurred.

The shōguns The leading principles of Iyéyasu's policy are thus summarized: The position of the shogun to the mikado was to be one of reverential homage. were in no way to interfere with the mikado's theoretical supremacy, but to strengthen it in every way, and show all respect to the emperor's relatives, and the old court aristocracy. Secondly, toward their inferiors the shōguns were to All insult and tyranny were to be behave with courtesy and consideration. avoided, and the weight of power was not to press too harshly. The neglect of this principle, as shown in insolence to inferiors, was the rock on which the gov ernments in nearly all ancient communities struck. This caution proves the consummate knowledge of human nature and the profound mastery of state-craft possessed by Iyéyasŭ. Another recommendation of Iyéyasŭ was, that the government of the lesser daimiōs should be frequently changed. The motive alleged for this was the prevention of misgovernment; but the real reason was, that they might not acquire local influence, and so endanger the power of the shōguns. This was similar in its purpose to the policy adopted by William the Conqueror, in portioning out the territories of his barons among several counties. In England the plan was completely successful; in Japan it failed, as we have seen, because the shōguns never dared to enforce the measure in the case of the greater\ daimiōs, who were the only ones to be dreaded. The best feature of the policy

of the shogunate was to be the endeavor to maintain peace in the empire as far as possible, or, in the words of Iyéyasŭ, "to assist the people to give peace to the empire."

THE TOKUGAWA FEUDAL SYSTEM.

THE most remarkable fact in the events leading to the Restoration was the alienation from the bakufu of the four great families, relatives of Tokugawa, Owari, Kii, Mito, and Echizen, all of kokushiu rank. Their status in the system was as follows:

Owari, with one cadet at Takasu, in Mino, 640,500 koku.

Kii, with one cadet, at Yoda, in Ködzuké, 565,000 koku.

Mito, in Hitachi at Mito (Ibaraki), with four cadets; one at Takamatsu, in Sanuki, with 120,000 koku; one at Moriyama, in Mutsu; two in Hitachi, with 30,000 koku. United revenues, 510,000 koku.

The Echizen family was large, consisting of thirteen branches, holding fiefs in every part of Hondo and one in Shikōku, and taking different sides during the war. All but one held the name Matsudaira. Two were kokushiu; one of Fukui Echizen, 320,000; and one of Aidzu (Wakamatsu) in Déwa (Iwashiro). The united revenues of the thirteen daimiōs of the house of Echizen were 1,479,000 koku.

The Maëda family, the head being Kaga, a kokushiu, had three cadets. United revenue, 1,237,000 koku. Kaga remained nearly neutral during the war.

The revenues of the clans of the combination which overthrew the bakufu, and restored the fiefs and registers to the mikado, were, Shimadzu, of Satsuma, 710,000; Mōri, of Nagato (Chōshiu), with five cadets, 579,000; Yamanouchi, of Tosa, with one cadet, 255,000; Nabéshima, of Hizén, with three cadets, 422,915. Uwajima was of the Datté family, which ranked after Satsuma in the feudal peerage, and was divided into four branches, which took different sides during the war. Their united revenues were 785,600; Uwajima having 100,000, and

Sendai 625,600.

In this note, and throughout this volume, the "revenue" of the daimiōs, given in koku, means the amount of rice, or its equivalent, produced, or supposed to be produced, in their territories. It was the official assessment made by the bakufu. The daimio and clan received as their own income one-half, sometimes two-thirds, of the assessed amount, the peasants and farmers getting the remainder. See F. O. Adams's "History of Japan," vol. i., chapter xii., and Japan Mail, July 8th, 1873. For an entire table of names, titles, and fiefs of all the daimios, see Dr. Walter Dixon's "Japan," chapter x.

As a specimen of the manner in which nearly every province was cut up into fiefs, I give the feudal map of Echizen:

There was also a place called Hombo, belonging to the shogun's government, and ruled by a salaried buniō (governor). Several hatamotos also lived in Echi

zen, with holdings of land of 500 koku, and upward. Echizen contained a population of 461,032 souls, with 97,000 houses, 1500 Buddhist temples, and 350 Shinto shrines. The area was about 400 square miles. There were thus in it six princes, a bakufu governor, and several hatamatos. Echizen is a fair specimen of a Japanese province from 1600 to 1872, and well illustrates the wondrously complex mechanism of the Japanese feudal system. Pomp, pride, jealousy, poverty of the many, wealth of the few, and a most varied assortment of petty bigotries, prejudices, ridiculous shams of every sort, and grounds for courtesies or brawls, were all exhibited in this little theatre, as in the medieval Europe. Each daimiōate, however petty, was a microcosmic government by itself. Fukui Han had its departments of the Treasury, Justice, Censorate, Census, Military Affairs, Coinage and Currency, and Public Works. The rice store-houses, taxes and pensions; prisons, power of trial, punishment, or execution; oversight of the theatre, books, weights and measures, and religion (inquiry into the evil sect, etc.); census work; arrow and spear arsenal, and, later, of powder-mill, rifle factory, and artillery-train; issue of paper money, and copper and iron cash; the erection' and care of the castle, daimiō's mansion, mills, magazines, bridges, roads, breakwater, school, and chemical laboratory, were under the care of their respective departments. It is evident that with the daimiōs jealous and at variance with each other, Japan could not long stand the financial strain of competition in war or peace with foreigners, and that enterprises, to cope with outside pressure, must be on a national scale, and by a national government. The financial question was one of the most powerful levers in prying up the bakufu, and restoring the ancient national government.

PAPERS ON JAPANESE SUBJECTS.

THE following articles, by the author, may be of use to readers of this work who wish further information on the subjects treated of:

1. In the "American Cyclopædia," New York, D. Appleton & Co.: "Japan" (seventeen pages, with map), "Kanagawa," "Kiōto," "Matsumaë,' ," "Mikado,”

99 66

"Nagasaki," " 'Niigata," " 'Nippon,' Nobunaga," "Oshima,” “ Ōzaka," "Saga,"

"Saghalin," ," "Satsuma," "Shimonoséki," "Tōkiō," "Tomomi Iwakura," "Yokohama," " etc., etc.

2. "The Tokio Guide" (thirty-five pages); "Map of Tōkiō, with Notes, Historical and Explanatory;" and "The Yokohama Guide" (thirty-nine pages), with map, for tourists and visitors, were published in Japan, 1874: Yokohama, F. R. Wetmore & Co.

3. "Education in Japan:" a series of thirteen articles, printed in The Japan Weekly Mail, Yokohama, 1873-'74. The greater bulk of matter in these papers was republished in The College Courant (New Haven), American Educational Monthly (New York), and in the Appendix to vol. ii. of F. O. Adams's "History of Japan," London, 1874, H. S. King & Co. The series treated of the "Tokioō Normal School;" "The Imperial College of Tōkiō;" "The School of Foreign Languages;" "The Opening of the New Polytechnic School by the Mikado;" "Foreign Teachers;" "Native Officials;" "Native Teachers;" "Japanese Students;" "The Old Education;" "Physical Training;" "The Study of the English Language;" "Female Education;" "Moral Training.”.

4. In Lippincott's Magazine: "Inside Japan " (a trip in Kadzusa and Awa, April, 1873); "Japanese Fox Myths," January, 1874; "A Call on a Bonze," June,

1874; "A Japanese Marriage in High Life," February, 1875; "A Daimiō's Life," August, 1875.

5. In The Overland Monthly: "A Japanese Merchant at Home" (Paper-making, etc., in Echizen); "The Mythical Zoology of Japan," August, 1874; “Newyear's-eve in Tōkiō," 1872-November, 1874; "In a Japanese Prison," September, 1875.

6. In The Independent: "New Japan;""The Sea Empire;" "A Tramp through Japan;" "The Imperial College in Yedo;" "Does Japan Persecute?" "Shintoism;"" Japanese Proverbs" (two papers); "Japan's Record of Progress in 1872;" "Japanese Politeness;" "Buddhism in Japan" (two papers); "Baby Gojiro;" "Trampling on the Cross;" Japanese Education at Home and Abroad;" Notes and Editorials on Japanese Subjects, 1870-1876.

7. In Appletons' Journal: "The Paper Money of Japan;" "Japanese Fireproofs;" "A Japanese City," August 1st, 1874; "Japanese Fans;" "A Modernized Japanese City," March 25th, 1875; “A Daimiō's Stable,” June 26th, 1875; "Household Superstitions in Japan," January, 1876.

8. In St. Nicholas: "The Feast of Dolls," March, 1875; "The Feast of Flags," May, 1875; "The Golden Fish of Owari Castle," with illustrations, by Ozawa. 9. In The Christian Weekly: "Education in Japan," with picture of the Imperial College in Tōkiō, October 30th, 1875.

10. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Japan for 1873: "The Streets and Streetnames of Yedo."

11. In The Christian at Work: "The Land of the Rising Sun," January 28th, 1875; "Christian Missions in Japan;" "Christ in Japan;" "Woman's Position in Japan."

12. Map of Dai Nippon, the Empire of Japan, and chapter on the Geography of Japan, in Mitchell's "School Geography and Atlas," Philadelphia, J. H. Butler & Co. This map was drawn by Takahashi, instructor in drawing in the Imperial College, Tokio, from the War Department map of Japan: the letter-press and names were added by the author.

DR. J. C. HEPBURN'S METEOROLOGICAL TABLES, FROM OBSERVATIONS MADE FROM 1863 TO 1869 INCLUSIVE, READ BEFORE THE ASIATIC SOCIETY OF JAPAN, JUNE 17TH, 1874.

MONTHLY AND YEARLY AVERAGE (1863-1869) of THE THERMOMETER (FAHR.).

"Yokohama is situated in lat. 35° 26' N., and long. 139° 39 E. from Greenwich. It is about thirty-seven miles from Cape King, the nearest point on the Pacific. The Bay of Yedo at Yokohama is about twelve miles wide. The city is, for the most part, built on a plain, about from two to ten feet above high-water mark, at the mouth of a valley opening on the bay. The valley is about a mile wide, and extends back in a westerly direction some three miles, gradually narrowing to a quarter of a mile. It is bounded on each side by a row of hills, about one hundred and twenty feet wide. It is cultivated in paddy fields, is consequently wet and marshy, and is exposed to the sweep of north-east and easterly winds from across the bay, and to south-west and westerly winds through the valley.

"The winds of Japan are at all seasons exceedingly irregular, frequently violent, and subject to sudden changes. The north-east and easterly winds are generally accompanied by rain, with a high and falling barometer, and are usually not violent. The south-west and westerly winds are generally high, often violent, and accompanied with a low barometer. It is from the south-west that the cyclones or typhoons almost invariably come. On clear and pleasant days, which are in excess of all others, there is a regular land and sea breeze at all seasons.

"The rain-fall is above the average of most countries, varying greatly, however, in different years. About two-thirds of the rain falls during the six months from April to October.

"The steady hot weather, when it is considered safe to change to light summer clothing, does not generally set in till the latter decade of June or 1st of July, and ends, often very abruptly, about the middle of September.

"The snow-fall is for the most part light, not often exceeding two or three inches. In 1861, on one occasion, it fell to the depth of twenty inches. The ice seldom exceeds one inch or one and a half inches in thickness. Fogs are rarely noticed, so also is hail. Thunder-storms are neither frequent nor severe. Earthquake shocks are frequent, averaging more than one a month; but hitherto, since the residence of foreigners in Yokohama, no very severe or dangerous shocks have occurred."