expected when other principles will be in the ascendant, and when the living shall no more be exposed to disease from the immediate presence of the mouldering putrifying corpse. Hear Mr. Walker as to how they manage matters in London :

"The bodies of the dead are crowded into every inch of available space, and when room no longer exists it is made by an unceremonious expulsion of the former occupants. In plain words-the dead are committed to the earth, but they do not remain there. In the eye of the law violation of the grave is a felony. In the opinion of medical judges on this question, a conclave of evil spirits leagued together to destroy the spiritual by depraving the physical man, could not, in the exercise of their utmost cunning and malignity, compound more subtle or more sure poisons than those elaborated day and night in the vaults, cellars, and receptacles for the dead in this metropolis. In order to render the work of poisoning more sure, myriads of bodies, in every stage of decomposition, have been, and continue to be, stowed away in subterranean receptacles in the streets, lanes, and blind alleys in this metropolis, situated in the very midst of the habitations of two millions and a half of people. Whilst in the majority of the so-called grave-yards every foot of ground has been occupied-re-occupied and re-employed→→→ until the very soil, compounded as it is of human remains, constitutes, in the warm season more especially, vast hot-beds of pestilential infection. But even in these saturated and disgusting depositories-disgusting both to sight and smell the dead are not allowed to remain for any length of time. Money is to be procured-space must be found for successive new tenants, whilst the late ones, often years before their right of tenancy has expired, are ejected by processes which, though I have elsewhere fully exposed, I will here very briefly indicate. Sometimes the clearing-out is wholesale. At the Cross-bones' burying-ground, in Southwark, the Irish Corner' was cleared of 1,000 bodies at one sweep. Generally speaking, the nefarious work goes on more gradually, though not always silently: for during many years, persons, whose necessities have compelled them to reside in the neighbourhood of such places, have been aroused from sleep in the dead of night by the noise occasioned by breaking up coffins recently deposited.

"In other localities the remains of the dead have been carted out in loads, and shot down as 'rubbish' upon waste grounds, or used for filling in.' Some of our viaducts have been constructed on rubbish obtained by this unchristian process.

"The more usual method, however, consists in simply cutting through the half-decomposed bodies and coffins, with instruments made for the purpose.

"The grave is dug through the corpses of the pre-deceased. This horrible violation of the dead body takes place more or less in all the London graveyards, and often gives rise to the most distressing scenes. The ends of justice have been defeated by it; the coroner being unable to find a recently interred body; while, on the contrary, relatives and friends have found on the surface, or have witnessed the exposure in the so-called grave, of portions of the bodies of those whom, but a short time previously, they had followed in sorrow to their last home.' Other circumstances prove that the violation is systematic-constant. The coffin-wood often serves as fuel for, and is given away to, the poor, in large quantities by grave-yard officials; and from the horrible stench which sometimes accompanies the combustion, there is no doubt that fire is one of the means employed for effectually removing incumbrances. In one notorious place, indeed, the fire was kept up with very brief and accidental interruptions-day and night-for more than a quarter of a century. Each man's coffin was employed to consume the contents of

his neighbour's. A minor degree of violation consists in clearing out what are called 'bone holes.' The fleshy portion of the human body, or the greater part thereof, is, as I have proved, rapidly destroyed by artificial agencies, after which, in some instances, the bones are disposed of to 'bone crushers, or stowed away in large pits.

"The latter are evacuated from time to time. An eye-witness counted 500 skulls, which were thus 'cleared out' in a single day."

This is very bad indeed. In ancient times it was not so,-the body of the loved one rested undisturbed for thousands of years. We doubt not the grave of Rachel has never been re-opened; and that the lovely mother of Israel lies undisturbed where her mourning husband deposited her clay-cold remains, long before the Jewish theocracy commenced; and Mr. Walker desiderates a national system of interments, and we consider the subject well worthy of engaging attention, at a time when lesser matters are eagerly canvassed in town and village.

Some of our readers may feel an interest as to the way in which they manage funereal matters in France; and they will find the subjoined extracts exceedingly curious, as to the arrangements for this purpose Paris:

"The number of metropolitan cemeteries is five; and they comprise an extent of 115 acres, but are insufficient. A very extensive piece of ground has been recently walled in, as a supplement to Montmartre, on the northern side of that cemetery.

"Every thing connected with the interment of the dead is performed by single administration, denominated service des Pompes Funebres,' which acts under a contract with the government. Persons dying in the hospitals, or in the Hotel des Invalides, and not claimed by their friends, are buried at the expense of these several establishments.

"The indigent are buried gratuitously by the administration, on certificate from the mayor of the municipal district of the deceased.

"The bodies of persons, one remove from the above class, are interred under what is called the ordinary service' of the administration. This comprises a hearse, drawn by two black horses: there are also four bearers, a coachman, and a superior attendant, all respectably clothed in black; a coffin likewise, covered by a black pall.

"The expense of this funeral is L.1, 1s. 8d. to L.1, 3s. 6d. ; but of this sum the administration receives only 11s. 6d., viz., 5s. 9d. for cost of transport, and 5s. 9d. for coffin. The remainder goes to the corporation of the city. About one-third of the entire burials take place under this head.

The religious ceremony connected with the ordinary service' is very simple, and performed gratuitously by the clergy.

"The 'extraordinary service' is divided into nine classes, to each of which is annexed a tariff, or printed scale of charges. The scale of each class is most comprehensive, and a selection may be made from it, according to the requirements or tastes of those who order the funeral. Thus the whole of the service, and articles enumerated under any given class, may be ordered, or the order may be simply confined to the hearse and coffin; but when a selection of a particular class has been made, parties must confine themselves to the tariff of that class, and not mix the others with it.

"The following is the scale of charges under each class, reduced to English money. Each sum total, however, must be increased by 15s. for adults, and 8s. 2d. for children, the tax on burials to defray expenses of transport, and also by the price of the coffins, which vary from L.22 to 17s. 6d., ac-,

cording to the materials and lining. On the other hand, it should be remarked, that the sum total for each class is the maximum which the law allows to be expended, though orders for this maximum are hardly ever given, and that the anniversary religious service,' which increases the expense about one fourth, is seldom required, except by the families of the rich. The cost of interments varies from L.120 to 15s., and from the total of each class about 1-5th may be deducted for services not required in the orders given. The 6th and 7th classes are those under which the greater number of interments takes place, and it may be calculated that about L.120,000 are annually expended for the interment of 25,000 bodies. "With such moderate charges it might be supposed that the funerals under each class are conducted in what we would call here a 'shabby manner.' This is far from being the case. The religious portion of the ceremony is conducted with a degree of pomp and solemnity unknown in Protestant England, and the remaining portion comprises more than enough to satisfy the most fastidious. The first-class funeral, for example, includes ornamental mourning of the church and house of the deceased in magnificent style, a hearse with four horses, 18 mourning coaches, 2 curates, 4 vicars, 50 priests, 12 professional singers for the grand mass, 22 chorister boys, 4 instrumental performers, and an accessory service of surpassing pomp. In fact, every portion of the service, in all classes, is conducted in a most satisfactory manner; but the mode of interment of paupers and unclaimed bodies would not, certainly, be suited to the increasing requirements of English feeling."

THE LANCASTER SCHEME OF EDUCATION.

Addresses on the Existing Obstructions to the Institution of a National System of Education. By Dr. J. P. NICHOL, Professor of Astronomy in the University of Glasgow.

THIS address was delivered at a meeting of the Glasgow Public School Association, and is now published separately, from the Report of the "North British Daily Mail." Professor Nichol has devoted much attention to the subject of education; and, from his valuable contributions to the cause, has a right to be heard on the present engrossing controversy. He has done good service to the progress of education, by the translation of Willm's "Education of the People," which is one of the most valuable practical treatises in any language. The value of the work is, however, greatly enhanced by the philosophical dissertation of the translator, in which he shews the grasp of a master mind. Though we confess to a profound admiration of Professor Nichol's philosophy of education, we are constrained to differ from him in regard to the political aspect of the question, as discussed in the address before us. must say, however, that the position which he defends has never found so able a champion. His defences are of the ablest kind, and his bearing is withal so respectful and conciliatory, that the impression he makes is of the most favourable description. His pleadings have a stronger title to be heard, as he is an ardent friend of the Church, and, with a dash of transcendentalism, is true to the standards of Geneva. We are now fast

We

getting into the thick of the controversy, and it is all-important that we should reconnoitre, and acquaint ourselves with the strongest position of the enemy; and we can safely recommend the pamphlet before us as giving the best conception of the strongest defences which we must assail and carry before the day be won.

The two great rival schemes of national education are represented by the Lancaster National School Education, and the Manchester and Salford Association. The latter is essentially denominational, and would communicate instruction only through the Church and the various sects. The former plan ignores the existence of religious denominations altogether, and would construct an organization altogether independent of the Church and the sectaries. The Lancaster scheme is the one which Professor Nichol advocates, and he has certainly made out the best case possible for it. He has expounded, in a very clear and forcible manner, the great advantages arising from each sect having an independent scheme of education in localities where there is field only for one efficient organization. In political organization, however, it is not always the simplest and the most theoretically accurate system that is the best and most workable. Scores of constitutions might be drawn out far more simple, far more theoretically correct than the British constitution; yet no wise statesman would venture to propose the trial of any of these instead of the present one. It will not do, in propounding a scheme of national education, to ignore the existing complication arising from the numerous religious denominations. It would, no doubt, be a far simpler mode to cast them overboard altogether; but all the merit of the solution of the problem must lie in adjusting the proposed scheme to existing conditions. The Lancaster scheme is not a loosening, but a cutting, of the Gordian

knot.

This Lancaster or secular scheme of education, while ignoring existing sects, only creates a new sect. Its educational organization will be to all intents a new denomination, defined by its negative tests and creeds. Though the scheme is usually known as the secular one, it does not profess to discard religion altogether. It professes only to renounce the religion of the sects. It makes, however, the important acknowledgment, that no scheme can be complete which does not recognise the religious element in man. This is considered a sine qua non to the proper developement of man's powers. This educational organization, then, assumes the essential functions of a Church. The essence of a Church, according to the Protestant theory, lies in its teaching functions. Since the Reformation the sacramental element has been always deemed very subordinate to the higher one of teaching. A Church, then, is essentially an educational institute, the truths of Christianity being considered the grand developing elements of man's nature. The proposed secular scheme can only, then, be regarded as a rival institute, teaching religion in its own sectarian way. It no doubt proposes to reject all the peculiar doctrines of Christianity, in regard to which sects differ at the present day; but this process of pruning only results in a new sect. A sect does not disarm sectarian animosity by the scantiness of its creed. The Unitarian has a very scanty creed; but the religious sects do not

draw more kindly to him than to those who admit a larger number of the peculiar doctrines of Christianity. The cold deism which the secular system proposes would only raise a new sect in the country, with fiercer antagonism than any now existing.

Professor Nichol ingeniously urges that in existing denominational schools the peculiarities of the denomination are rarely taught, and he argues that no end is attained by making the schoolmaster sign the formulas of the Church, when he does not teach these to his pupils. Now we at once admit that in the parish schools of Scotland the formulas of the Church are never forced upon the pupil so as to exclude the children of other denominations. What new plan, it may be asked, is there for the formulas when they are practically in operation? Now we at once admit that the mere signing of the formula could not of itself insure the religious character of the education in the school. Its value consists in its being an act of incorporation with the Church, from which the requisite influence flows. The school retains its religious character from its being a living branch of the Church, not from the mere symbol of union-the signing of tests. When tests have been maintained, without the living union of which they are merely symbolical, they have failed in securing religious teachers. In Germany, rigid religious tests are applied, and the teachers are bound to teach the religious creeds to the children, and yet we find that the teaching in Germany is on the whole utterly irreligious. The school, almost everywhere, is the hotbed of infidelity, even where the Church is exhibiting a hopeful evangelical renewal. The reason of this simply is, that there is no real union between the Church and the school, and the influence of the former cannot bear directly upon the latter. The great felt want of Germany at the present moment, is the incorporation of the school with the Church. Thus was the want most emphatically expressed at the great league of Wirtemberg; and in Bunsen's "Church of the Future," his hope arises from the reviving of the ancient diaconate in the modern schoolmaster. It is curious to mark how we are always, in this country, a step behind in the idolatry of the German mind and character. It is when some system of philosophy becomes effete, and is cast off as a worn-out garment, that it is idolised in this country. And so it is in regard to the system of education. The secular scheme has arisen very much from the idolatry of the German system; but we are most enthusiastic in our admiration at the very moment when Germany itself is discovering its utter hollowness. The relative position of Scotland and Prussia is at the present moment almost comical. Prussia is eager to abandon its now worthless and godless scheme in favour of the scheme of the present national establishment of Scotland, for the scheme of the Scottish establishment, completely realises the idea of Bunsen and the League of Wirtemberg. On the other hand, Scotland professes to be dissatisfied with her scheme, and is sighing for the advantages of the scheme of Prussia. Surely this game of cross purposes should make us pause before we abandon the system which has conferred on our nation its present greatness, for a system which has spread ungodliness throughout the masses, and has shaken almost all the thrones of Europe by its anarchical might.