no other than rakes have to be freelivers, and savages to be freemen.' ADDISON. The liberal-minded is anxious to enlarge the boundaries of science by making all the thinking world in all ages to contribute to the advancement of knowledge;

For me, for whose well-being So amply, and with hands so liberal, Thou hast provided all things. MILTON. The desire of knowledge discovers a liberal mind. BLAIR. With the freethinker nothing is good that is old or established; with the liberal man nothing is good because it is new, nothing bad because it is old. Men of the least knowledge and understanding are the most free in their opinions, in which description of men this age abounds above all others; such men are exceedingly anxious to usurp the epithet liberal to themselves; but the good sense of mankind will prevail against partial endeavours, and assign this title to none but men of comprehensive talents, sound judgements, extensive experience, and deep erudition.

It seems as if freedom of thought was that aberration of the mind which is opposed to the two extremes of superstition and bigotry; and that liberality is the happy medium. The freethinker holds nothing sacred, and is attached to nothing but his own conceits; the superstitious man holds too many things sacred, and is attached to every thing that favors this bent of his mind. A freethinker accommodates his duties to his inclinations; he denies his obligation to any thing which comes across the peculiar fashion of his sentiment. A man of free sentiments rejects the spirit of Christianity, with the letter or outward formality; the superstitious man loses the spirit of Christianity in his extravagant devotion to its outward formalities.

On the other hand bigotry and liberality are op posed to each other, not in regard to what they believe, so much as in regard to the nature of their belief. The bigotted man so narrows his mind to the compass of his belief as to exclude every other object; the liberal man directs his views to every object which does not directly interfere with his belief. It is possible for the bigotted and the liberal man to have the same faith; but the former mistakes its true object and tendency, namely, the improvement of his rational powers, which the latter pursues.

It is evident, therefore, from the above, that the freethinker, the superstitious man, and the bigot, are alike the offspring of ignorance; and that liberality is the handmaid of science, and the daughter of truth. Of all the mental aberrations freedom of thinking is the most obnoxious, as it is fostered by the pride of the heart, and the vanity of the imagination. In superstition we sometimes see the anxiety of a welldisposed mind to discharge its conscience: with bigotry we often see associated the mild virtues which are taught by Christianity; but in the freethinker we only see the bad passions and the unruly will set free from all the constraints of outward authority, and disengaged from the control of reason and judgement:

in such a man the amiable qualities of the natural disposition become corrupted, and the evil humors triumph.

FREE, FAMILIAR.

Free has already been considered as it respects the words, actions, and sentiments (v. Free); in the prethey respect the outward behaviour or conduct in sent case it is coupled with familiarity, inasmuch as general of men one to another.

To be free is to be disengaged from all the constraints which the ceremonies of social intercourse impose; to be familiar is to be upon the footing of a familiar, of a relative, or one of the same family. Neither of these terms can be admitted as unexceptionable; but freedom is that which is in general totally unauthorized; familiarity sometimes shelters itself under the sanction of long, close, and friendly intercourse.

Free is a term of much more extensive import than familiar; a man may be free towards another in a thousand ways; but he is familiar towards him only in his manners and address. in his manners and address. A man who is free looks upon every thing as his which he chooses to make use of; a familiar man only wants to share with another and to stand upon an equal footing. A man who is free will take possession of another man's house or room in his absence, and will make use of his name or his property as it suits his convenience; his freedom always turns upon that which contributes to his own indulgence; Being one day very free at a great feast, he suddenly broke forth into a great laughter.' HAKEWELL. A man who is familiar will smile upon you, take hold of your arm, call you by some friendly pleasures of social intercourse; his familiarity always or common name, and seek to enjoy with you all the turns upon that which will increase his own importance; Kalandar streight thought he saw his niece Parthenia, and was about in such familiar sort to have spoken unto her; but she in grave and honourable manner, gave him to understand he was mistaken.' SIDNEY. There cannot be two greater enemies to the harmony of society than freedom and familiarity; both of which it is the whole business of politeness to destroy; for no man can be free without being in danger of infringing upon what belongs to another, nor familiar without being in danger of obtruding himself to the annoyance of others.

When these words are used figuratively in reference to things, they do not bear that objectionable feature ; Free and familiar with misfortune grow,

Be us'd to sorrow, and inur'd to woe. PRIOR.

FREE, EXEMPT.

To free is as general in its signification as in the preceding articles; to exempt, in Latin exemptus, participle of eximo, signifies set out or disengaged from a part.

The condition and not the conduct of men is here considered. Freedom is either accidental or intentional; the exemption is always intentional: we may be free from disorders, or free from troubles; we are exempt, that is exempted by government, from serving in the militia. Free is applied to every thing from which any one may wish to be free; but exempt, on the contrary, to those burdens which we should share with others: we may be free from imperfections, free from inconveniencies, free from the interruptions of others;

O happy, if he knew his happy state,

The swain who, free from bus'ness and debate, Receives his easy food from nature's hand! DRYDEN. A man is exempt from any office or tax; To be exempt from the passions with which others are tormented, "is the only pleasing solitude.' ADDISON. We may likewise be said to be exempt from troubles when speaking of these as the dispensations of Providence

to others.

FREEDOM, LIBERTY.

Freedom, the abstract noun of free, is taken in all the senses of the primitive; liberty, from the Latin liber free, is only taken in the sense of free from external constraint, from the action of power.

Freedom is personal and private; liberty is public. The freedom of the city is the privilege granted by any city to individuals; the liberty of the city are the immunities enjoyed by the city. By the same rule of distinction we speak of the freedom of the will, the freedom of manners, the freedom of conversation, or the freedom of debate; The ends for which men unite in society, and submit to government, are to enjoy security to their property, and freedom to their persons, from all injustice or violence.' BLAIR. I would not venture into the world under the character of a man who pretends to talk like other people, until I had arrived at a full freedom of speech.' ADDISON. We speak of the liberty of conscience, the liberty of the press, the liberty of the subject; The liberty of the press is a blessing when we are inclined to write against others, and a calamity when we find ourselves overborne by the multitude of our assailants.' JOHNSON. A slave obtains his freedom;

O freedom! first delight of human kind!

Not that which bondmen from their masters find,
The privilege of doles. DRYDen..

A captive obtains his liberty.

Freedom serves moreover to qualify the action; liberty is applied only to the agent: hence we say, to speak or think with freedom; but to have the liberty of speaking, thinking, or acting. Freedom and liberty are likewise employed for the private conduct of individuals towards each other; but the former is used in a qualified good sense, the latter in an unqualified bad sense. A freedom may sometimes be licensed or allowed; liberty is always taken in a bad sense. A

freedom may be innocent and even pleasant; a liberty always does more or less violence to the decencies of life, or the feelings of individuals. There are little freedoms which may pass between youth of different sexes, so as to heighten the pleasures of society; but a modest woman will be careful to guard against any freedoms which may admit of misinterpretation, and resent every liberty offered to her as an insult.

TO GIVE UP, DELIVER, SURRENDER, YIELD, CEDE, CONCEDE.

to retain; we deliver that which we wish not to retain. We give up (v. To give, grant) that which we wish Deliver does not include the idea of a transfer; but

give up implies both the giving from, and the giving to: we give up our house to the accommodation of our friends; A popish priest threatens to excommunicate a Northumberland esquire if he did not give up to him the church lands.' ADDISON. We deliver property into the hands of the owner; 'It is no wonder that they who at such a time could be corrupted to frame and deliver such a petition, would not be reformed by such an answer.' DRYDEN. We may give up with reluctance, and deliver with pleasure; Such an expectation will never come to pass; therefore I will e'en give it up and go and fret myself.' COLLIER.

On my experience, Adam, freely taste,

And fear of death deliver to the winds. MILTON.

To give up is a colloquial substitute for either surrender or yield; as it designates no circumstance of the action, it may be employed in familiar discourse, in almost every case for the other terms: where the action is compulsory, we may either say an officer gives up or surrenders his sword; when the action is discretionary, we may either say he gives up, or yields a point of discussion give up has, however, an extensiveness of application which gives it an office distinct from either surrender or yield. When we speak of familiar and personal subjects, give up is more suitable than surrender, which is confined to matters of public interest or great moment, unless when taken figuratively: a man gives up his place, his right, his claim, and the like; he surrenders a fortress, a vessel, or his property to his creditors, or figuratively he surrenders his judgement or opinions. When give up is compared with yield, they both respect personal matters; but the former expresses a much stronger action than the latter: a man gives up his whole judgement to another; he yields to the opinion of another in particular cases: he gives himself up to sensual indulgencies; he yields to the force of temptation; The peaceable man will give up his favourite schemes: he will yield to an opponent rather than become the cause of violent embroilments.' BLAIR. The young, half-seduced by persuasion, and half-compelled by ridicule, surrender their convictions, and consent to live as they see others around them living.' BLAIR.

Cede, from the Latin cedo to give, is properly to surrender by virtue of a treaty: we may surrender a town as an act of necessity; but the cession of a country is purely a political transaction: thus, generals frequently surrender such towns as they are not able to defend; and governments cede such countries as they find it not convenient to retain. To concede, which is but a variation of cede, is a mode of yielding which may be either an act of discretion or courtesy; as when a government concedes to the demands of the people certain privileges, or when an individual concedes any point in dispute for the sake of • As peace : to the magic power which the devil imparts for these concessions of his votaries, theologians have different opinions.' CUMBERLAND.

TO GIVE UP, ABANDON, RESIGN,
FOREGO.

These terms differ from the preceding (v. To give up), inasmuch as they designate actions entirely free from foreign influence. A man gives up, abandons, and resigns, from the dictates of his own mind, independent of all control from others. To give up and abandon both denote a positive decision of the mind; but the former may be the act of the understanding or the will, the latter is more commonly the act of the will and the passions: to give up is applied to familiar cases; abandon to matters of importance: one gives up an idea, an intention, a plan, and the like; Upon his friend telling him, he wondered he gave up the question, when he had visibly the better of the dispute; I am never ashamed, says he, to be confuted by one who is master of fifty legions.' ADDISON. abandons a project, a scheme, a measure of govern

ment;

For Greece we grieve, abandoned by her fate,

One

To drink the dregs of thy unmeasur'd hate. POPE.

To give up and resign are applied either to the outward actions, or merely to the inward movements : but the former is active, it determinately fixes the conduct; the latter seems to be rather passive, it is the leaning of the mind to the circumstances: a man gives up his situation by a positive act of his choice; he resigns his office when he feels it inconvenient to hold it so, likewise, we give up what we expect or lay claim to; He declares himself to be now satisfied to the contrary, in which he has given up the cause.' DRYDEN. We resign what we hope or wish for;

The praise of artful numbers I resign,

And hang my pipe upon the sacred pine. DRYDEN. In this sense, forego, which signifies to let go or let pass by, is comparable with resign, inasmuch as it expresses a passive action; but we resign that which we have, and we forego that which we might have: thus, we resign the claims which we have already made; we forego the claim if we abstain altogether from making it: the former may be a matter of

prudence; the latter is always an act of virtue and forbearance;

Desirous to resign and render back
All I receiv'd. MILTON.

What they have enjoyed with great pleasure at one time, has proved insipid or nauseous at another; and they see nothing in it, for which they should forego a present enjoyment.' LOCKE.

Then, pilgrim, turn, thy cares forego;

All earth-born cares are wrong. GOLDSMITH. When applied reflectively, to give up is used either in a good, bad, or indifferent sense; abandon always in a bad sense; resign always in a good sense: a man may may give himself up, either to studious pursuits, to idle vagaries, or vicious indulgencies; he abandons himself to gross vices; he resigns himself to the will of Providence, or to the circumstances of his condition: a man is said to be given up to his lusts who is without any principle to control him in the gratification; he is said to be abandoned, when his outrageous conduct bespeaks an entire insensibility to every honest principle; he is said to be resigned when he discovers composure and tranquillity in the hour of affliction.

TO ABANDON, DESERT, FORSAKE,
RELINQUISH.

The idea of leaving or separating one's self from an object is common to these terms, which differ in the circumstances or modes of leaving. The two former are more solemn acts than the two latter. Abandon, from the French abandonner, is a concretion of the words donner à ban, to give up to a public ban or outlawry. To abandon then is to expose to every misfortune which results from a formal and public denunciation; to set out of the protection of law and government; and to deny the privileges of citizenship; desert, in Latin desertus, participle of desero, that is, de privative and sero to sow, signifies to lie unsown, unplanted, cultivated no longer. To desert then is to leave off cultivating; and as there is something of idleness and improvidence in ceasing to render the soil productive, ideas of disapprobation accompany the word in all its metaphorical applications. He who leaves off cultivating a farm usually removes from it; hence the idea of removal and blameworthy removal, which usually attaches to the term; forsake, in Saxon forsecan, is compounded of the primitive for and sake, seek, secan, signifying to seek no more, to leave off seeking that which has been an object of search; relinquish, in Latin relinquo, is compounded of re or retro behind, and linquo to leave, that is, to leave what we would fain take with us, to leave with reluctance.

To abandon is totally to withdraw ourselves from an object; to lay aside all care and concern for it; to leave it altogether to itself: to desert is to withdraw ourselves at certain times when our assistance or co

operation is required, or to separate ourselves from that to which we ought to be attached to forsake is to withdraw our regard for and interest in an object, to keep at a distance from it; to relinquish is to leave that which has once been an object of our pursuit. Abandon and desert are employed for persons or things; forsake for persons or places; relinquish for things only.

With regard to persons these terms express moral culpability in a progressive ratio downwards: abandon comprehends the violation of the most sacred ties; desert, a breach of honor and fidelity; forsake, a rupture of the social bond.

We abandon those who are entirely dependent for protection and support; they are left in a helpless state exposed to every danger; a child is abandoned by its parent; He who abandons his offspring or corrupts them by his example, perpetrates a greater evil than a murderer.' HAWKESWORTH. We desert those with whom we have entered into coalition; they are left to their own resources: a soldier deserts his comrades; a partisan deserts his friends; After the death of Stella, Swift's benevolence was contracted, and his severity exasperated: he drove his acquaintance from his table, and wondered why he was deserted.' JOHNSON. We forsake those with whom we have been in habits of intimacy; they are deprived of the pleasures and comforts of society; a man forsakes his companions; a lover forsakes his mistress, or a husband his wife;

Forsake me not thus, Adam! MILTON.

We are bound by every law human and divine not to abandon; we are called upon by every good principle not to desert; we are impelled by every kind feeling not to forsake. Few animals except man will abandon their young_until they are enabled to provide for themselves. Interest, which is but too often the only principle that brings men together, will lead them to desert each other in the time of difficulty. We are enjoined in the gospel not to forsake the poor and needy.

When abandoned by our dearest relatives, deserted by our friends, and forsaken by the world, we have always a resource in our Maker.

With regard to things (in which sense the word relinquish is synonymous) the character of abandoning varies with the circumstances and motives of the action, according to which it is either good, bad, or indifferent; deserting is always taken in an unfavorable or bad sense; the act of forsaking is mostly indifferent, but implies a greater or less breach of some tie; that of relinquishing is prudent or imprudent.

A captain may abandon his vessel when he has no means of saving it, except at the risk of his life;

He boldly spake, sir knight, if knight thou be,
Abandon this forestalled place at erst,

For fear of further harm, I counsel thee. SPENSER.

-neglected nature pines

Abandoned. COWPER.

An upright statesman will never desert his post when his country is in danger, nor a true soldier desert his colors; He who at the approach of evil betrays his trust, or deserts his post, is branded with cowardice.' HAWKESWORTH. Birds will mostly forsake their nests when they discover them to have been visited, and most animals will forsake their haunts when they find themselves discovered; Macdonald and Macleod of Skie have lost many tenants and labourers, but Raarsa has not yet been forsaken by any of its inhabitants.' JOHNSON. So likewise figuratively; When learning, abilities, and what is excellent in the world, forsake the church, we may easily foretell its ruin without the gift of prophecy.' SOUTH. Men often inadvertently relinquish the fairest prospects in order to follow some favorite scheme which terminates in their ruin; Men are wearied with the toil which they bear, but cannot find in their hearts to relinquish it.' STEELE.

Having abandoned their all, they forsook the place which gave them birth, and relinquished the advantages which they might have obtained from their rank and family.

TO ABANDON, RESIGN, RENOUNCE,
ABDICATE.

The idea of giving up is common to these terms, which signification, though analogous to the former, admits, however, of a distinction; as in the one case we separate ourselves from an object, in the other we send or cast it from us. In this latter sense the terms abandon and resign have been partially considered in the preceding articles; renounce, in Latin renuncio, from nuncio to tell or declare, is to declare off from a thing; abdicate, from dico to speak, signifies likewise to call or cry off from a thing.

We abandon and resign by giving up to another; we renounce by sending away from ourselves; we abandon a thing by transferring our power over to another; in this manner a debtor abandons his goods possession of it to another; in this manner we resign to his creditors: we resign a thing by transferring our a place to a friend: we renounce a thing by simply ceasing to hold it; in this manner we renounce a claim or a profession. As to renounce signified originally to give up by word of mouth, and to resign to formal action than the latter: we may renounce by give up by signature, the former is consequently a less implication; we resign in direct terms: we renounce the pleasures of the world when we do not seek to enjoy them; we resign a pleasure, a profit, or advantage, of which we expressly give up the enjoyment.

To abdicate is a species of informal resignation. A monarch abdicates his throne who simply declares his will to cease to reign; but a minister resigns his office when he gives up the seals by which he held it. A humane commander will not abandon a town to the rapine of the soldiers;

The passive Gods beheld the Greeks defile
Their temples, and abandon to the spoil
Their own abodes. DRYDEN.

The motives for resignations are various. Discontent, disgust, and the love of repose, are the ordinary inducements for men to resign honorable and lucrative employments; It would be a good appendix to "the art of living and dying," if any one would write "the art of growing old," and teach men to resign their pretensions to the pleasures of youth.' STEELE. Men are not so ready to renounce the pleasures that are within their reach, as to seek after those which are out of their reach; For ministers to be silent in the cause of Christ is to renounce it, and to fly is to desert it.' SOUTH. The abdication of a throne is not always an act of magnanimity, it may frequently result from caprice or necessity; Much gratitude is due to the nine from their favoured poets, and much hath been paid for even to the present hour they are invoked and worshipped by the sons of verse, whilst all the other deities of Olympus have either abdicated their thrones, or been dismissed from them with contempt.' CUMBERLAND.

Charles the Fifth abdicated his crown, and his minister resigned his office on the very same day, when both renounced the world with its allurements and its

troubles.

We abandon nothing but that over which we have had an entire and lawful control; we abdicate nothing but that which we have held by a certain right; but we may resign or renounce that which may be in our possession only by an act of violence. A usurper cannot abandon his people, because he has no people over whom he can exert a lawful authority; still less can he abdicate a throne, because he has no throne to abdicate, but he may resign supreme power, because power may be unjustly held; or he may renounce his pretensions to a throne, because pretensions may be fallacious or extravagant.

Abandon and resign are likewise used in a reflective sense; the former to express an involuntary or culpable action, the latter that which is voluntary and proper. The soldiers of Hannibal abandoned themselves to effeminacy during their winter quarters at Cuma; It is the part of every good man's religion to resign himself to God's will.' CUMBERLAND.

TO ABSTAIN, FORBEAR, REFRAIN.

Abstain, in French abstenir, Latin abstineo, is compounded of ab or abs from and teneo to keep, signifying to keep one's self from a thing; forbear is compounded of the preposition for, or from, and the verb to bear or carry, signifying to carry or take one's self from a thing; refrain, in French refrèner, Latin refræno, is compounded of re back and freno, from frænum a bridle, signifying to keep back as it were by a bridle, to bridle in.

The first of these terms marks the leaving a thing, and the two others the omission of an action. We abstain from any object by not making use of it;

we forbear to do or refrain from doing a thing by not taking any part in it.

Abstaining and forbearing are outward actions, but refraining is connected with the operations of the mind. We may abstain from the thing we desire, or forbear to do the thing which we wish to do; but we can never refrain from any action without in some measure losing our desire to do it.

We abstain from whatever concerns our food and clothing; we forbear to do what we may have particular motives for doing; refrain from what we desire to do, or have been in the habits of doing.

It is a part of the Mahometan faith to abstain from the use of wine; but it is a Christian duty to forbear doing an injury even in return for an injury; and to refrain from all swearing and evil speaking.

6

Abstinence is a virtue when we abstain from that which may be hurtful to ourselves or injurious to another; Though a man cannot abstain from being weak, he may from being vicious.' ADDISON. Forbearance is essential to preserve peace and good will betwixt man and man. Every one is too liable to offend, not to have motives for forbearing to deal harshly with the offences of his neighbour; By forbearing to do what may be innocently done, we may add hourly new vigour and resolution, and secure the power of resistance when pleasure or interest shall lend their charms to guilt.' JOHNSON. If we refrain from uttering with the lips the first dictates of an angry mind, we shall be saved much repentance in future; 'If we conceive a being, created with all his faculties and senses, to open his eyes in a most delightful plain, to view for the first time the serenity of the sky, the splendour of the sun, the verdure of the fields and woods, the glowing colours of the flowers, we can hardly believe it possible that he should refrain from bursting into an ecstasy of joy, and pouring out his praises to the Creator of those wonders.' SIR WILLIAM JONES.

ABSTINENT, SOBER, ABSTEMIOUS,
TEMPERATE.

The first of these terms is generic, the rest specific; Abstinent (v. To abstain) respects every thing that acts on the senses, and in a limited sense applies particularly to solid food; sober, from the Latin sobrius, or sebrius, that is, sine ebrius, not drunk, implies an abstinence from excessive drinking; abstemious, from the Latin abstemius, compounded of abs and temetum wine, implies the abstaining from wine or strong liquor in general; temperate, in Latin temperatus, participle of tempero to moderate or regulate, implies a well regulated abstinence in all manner of sensual indulgence.

We may be abstinent without being sober, sober without being abstemious, and all together without being temperate.

An abstinent man does not eat or drink so much as he could enjoy; a sober man may drink much without