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Brown was wounded, he succeeded to the|ening various already strong places. Nimecommand of the light division. He directed the attack on the redan, but his conduct on that occasion subjected him to depreciating comments from some quarters. On the resignation of Gen. Simpson he was appointed to the chief command, and in that capacity brought the troops home. He was elected member of parliament for Greenwich in April, 1857, and sat till 1859, when he was appointed governor of Gibraltar. The colonelcy of the 23d fusiliers was bestowed upon him in 1860, and he was promoted to the rank of general in July, 1863. CODRUS, the last king of Athens, son of Melanthus, reigned, according to tradition, about 1068 B. C. The legend relates that when Attica was invaded by the Dorian Heraclidæ from Peloponnesus, the oracle declared that those would be victorious whose king should be slain. Codrus thereupon determined to sacrifice himself, entered the camp of the enemy in disguise, provoked a quarrel with the common soldiers, and was slain in the fray. | The Dorians, having learned the death of the Attic king, abstained from hostilities and returned home; and the Athenians, thinking no one worthy to succeed Codrus, abolished the kingly dignity, and instituted in its stead the office of archon. Medon, son of Codrus, was the first archon.

COEHORN, or Cohorn, Menno van, baron, a Dutch general and engineer, born in Friesland in 1641 (according to some in 1632), died at the Hague, March 17, 1704. A captain at the age of 16, he distinguished himself at the siege of Maestricht, and at the battles of Senef, Cassel, St. Denis, and Fleurus. During the intervals of active duty he devoted much attention to the subject of fortification, with the view of equalizing the chances between besiegers and besieged, the new system of his contemporary Vauban having given great advantages to the latter. While a young man he gained a name as an engineer, and by the time he had reached middle life was recognized as the best officer of that arm in the Dutch service. The prince of Orange promised him a coloneley, but as he was remiss in fulfilling the pledge, Coehorn retired in disgust, with the intention of offering his services to the French. His wife and eight children, however, were arrested by order of the prince as hostages for his return, which quickly brought him back, when he received the promised rank, and was afterward appointed successively general of artillery, director general of fortifications, and governor of Flanders. His whole life was spent in connection with the defences of the Low Countries. At the siege of Grave, in 1674, he invented and for the first time made use of the small mortars called cohorns, for throwing grenades, and in the succeeding year elicited the applause of Vauban by successfully crossing the Maas, and carrying a bastion which was considered as protected by the river. After the peace of Nimeguen (1678) he was employed in strength

guen, Breda, Bergen-op-Zoom, and other fortresses, attest the value of his system. The last named place he considered his masterpiece, but it was taken after a long siege in 1747 by Marshal de Löwendal. During the campaigns from 1683 to 1691 he was in active service. The siege of Namur in 1692 gave him an opportunity to test his system against that of Vauban, for these two great engineers were there opposed to each other, Coehorn in defending a work which he had constructed to protect the citadel, and Vauban in attempting to reduce it. Coehorn made an obstinate defence, but, being dangerously wounded, was compelled to surrender to his rival. He was afterward engaged at the attacks on Trarbach, Limburg, and Liége, and in 1695 aided in retaking Namur. In the war of the Spanish succession he besieged successively Venloo, Stephensworth, Roeremond, and Liége; and in 1703 he took Bonn, on the Rhine, after three days' cannonade of heavy artillery aided by a fire of grenades from 500 cohorns. Next he passed into Flanders, where he gained several successes over the French, and subsequently directed the siege of Huy. This was his last service, for he died soon afterward of apoplexy, while waiting a conference with the duke of Marlborough on the plan of a new campaign. Coehorn's greatest work, Nieuwe Vestingbouw (fol., Leeuwarden, 1685), was translated into several foreign languages. His plans are mostly adapted to the Dutch fortresses, or to those which are similarly situated on ground but a few feet above water level. Wherever it was practicable, he encircled his works with two ditches; the outermost full of water, the inner dry, and usually of the width of about 125 ft., serving as a place d'armes for the besieged, and in some cases for detachments of cavalry. The theory of his system, both of attack and defence, was the superiority of a combined mass over isolated fire. Professionally, Coehorn was accused of wasteful expenditure of life, in which respect he contrasted unfavorably with Vauban, who was sparing of men. He refused inducements offered by several foreign governments. Charles II. of England knighted him. He was buried at Wijkel, near Sneek, in Friesland, and a monument was dedicated there to his memory. His biography was written by his son Theodorus (new ed., by Sypestion, 1860). For his system of fortifications, see Zastrow, Geschichte der Befestigung (3d ed., 1854).

COELLO, Claudio, a painter, born in Madrid, of Portuguese parents, in 1621, died there in 1693. He excelled both in color and design, and was made painter to Charles II., for whom he executed many works in the Escorial. His chief work is the altarpiece in the sacristy, representing the ceremony of the collocation of the host. His works are numerous in Madrid, Salamanca, and Saragossa.

COELUS. See URANUS.

CŒUR, Jacques, a French merchant and royal treasurer, born at Bourges near the end of the 14th century, died in the island of Scio, Nov. 25, 1456. He was at first one of the masters of the mint at Bourges, and afterward engaged in commerce on a vast scale, visiting Egypt and Syria, establishing depots throughout the East, and covering the Mediterranean with his ships. Thus he acquired a great fortune and attracted the attention of Charles VII., who in 1435 appointed him head of the French mint, and afterward treasurer. His excellent management of affairs caused the king to ennoble him, and to intrust him with high functions in the French provinces, and with diplomatic missions in Italy. Cœur contributed 200,000 crowns to help the king in rescuing Normandy from the English. After the successful end of the war, his influence became so great as to give offence to envious persons, who after the death of the king's mistress, Agnes Sorel, charged him with having poisoned her, and caused him to be arrested (1451), and his vast property to be confiscated. Although the charge was proved to be groundless, he was detained in prison till 1455, when he effected his escape. Repairing to Rome, he was kindly received by Pope Nicholas V., and was enabled to gather the broken remains of his fortune. Pope Calixtus III. selected him in 1456 as captain general of a fleet against the Turks. On this expedition Coeur was overtaken by illness, died, and was buried in the church of the Franciscans in Scio. He had vainly implored the clemency of Charles VII. in favor of his family. Under Louis XI. his memory was exculpated from all charges, and a part of his property was afterward restored to his descendants.See Jacques Cœur et Charles VII., ou la France au XVe siècle (2 vols., Paris, 1853).

CŒURS D'ALÊNE (Awl-hearts), an Indian tribe in Idaho and Washington territories, of the Selish family, although their dialect differs greatly from others of the language. They call themselves Skizoomish, or Skitzuish, but are known generally by the above name, given them by the French voyageurs. They were poor, They were poor, distrustful, and cruel, and lived on fish, roots, and small game, not visiting the bison grounds. Although estimated in 1822 at 2,000, they numbered but 300 in 1870. In 1841 Father De Smet visited them. In 1842 a Catholic mission was begun, which was removed in 1846 to a place 30 m. from Cœur d'Alêne lake (the source of Spokane river), where they had a church, a mill, and dwellings. The tribe became Christians, but viewed with jealousy the entrance of whites into their country; and in 1858 their chief, Vincent, with 100 warriors, joined Kamiakin, the Yakama chief, in his attack on Col. Steptoe. They were defeated by Col. Wright in the bat tles of Four Lakes and Spokane plains, and have since been peaceful. A part of the tribe in Idaho had a reservation set apart for them by an executive order of June 14, 1867; and by order of July 2, 1872, those in Paradise valley

were removed against their protest to a reservation between the Okinakane and Columbia rivers and British America.

COFFEE (Turkish, kahve), the seeds of the plant coffea Arabica, of the order cinchonacea; also the beverage prepared by infusion or decoction of them in boiling water. In southern Abyssinia the plant grows wild in great profusion, and there it has been in use from very remote times. Its name is therefore generally derived from Kaffa, the name of a district S. of Abyssinia. It also grows wild in western Africa. The coffee-producing belt of the world lies between the isothermal lines of lat. 25° N. and 30° S. The plant grows at an altitude as high as 6,000 ft. above the sea; but it does not flourish where the temperature is below 55°. It thrives in warm situations upon the slopes of hills and in soil not retentive of rain. The cultivation of coffee is widely diffused throughout the tropics, the

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principal countries being Brazil, Java, Ceylon, Sumatra, the isle of Réunion, the western coast of India, Arabia, Abyssinia, the West Indies, Central America, Venezuela, Guiana, Peru, Bolivia, and some of the Pacific islands. The plant attains the height of 8 to 20, and sometimes 30 ft. The trunk is covered with a grayish bark, and its white flowers grow in thick clusters around the branches. It is usually kept down by pruning to about 5 ft. in height, to increase its productiveness and for convenience in gathering the fruit. The slender and pliable branches then spread out and bend down like those of an apple tree. The plants are raised from the seed in nurseries, and when a year old are transplanted and set out in rows. In three years they begin to yield fruit, but are not in full bearing till the fifth year; they continue to yield for 20 years or longer. The leaves, of oblong-ovate and pointed form, grow in pairs, one opposite the other. They are four or five inches long, smooth and shining, and of dark green color. The plant being an

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evergreen, the foliage is always fresh; and | choly" (1621) is supposed to be the first Engthough at certain seasons the blossoms sudden- lish writer who notices it. "The Turks," he ly appear scattered among the dark leaves like says, "have a drink called coffee (for they use flakes of snow, they are hardly ever entirely no wine), so named of a berry as black as soot absent. They continue to put forth while the and as bitter, which they sip up as warm as fruit of former blossoms is coming to matu- they can suffer, because they find by experirity, and so the ripe coffee may be gathered at ence that that kind of drink so used helpeth almost every season; but the real harvests are digestion and procureth alacrity." A Greek usually two, and sometimes three, in the course servant of a Turkey merchant opened the first of the year. The fruit when ripe becomes red coffee house in London in 1652, the first in and finally dark purple. It resembles a cherry, England having been opened a year before at and the fleshy portion which surrounds the Oxford by a Jew, Jacob. At the close of seeds is very sweet and palatable. Each berry the century the annual consumption of cofcontains two seeds; their flat sides are opposed fee in the kingdom amounted to about 100 to each other in the centre of the pulp, and are tons. Its culture was introduced into Java separated by a thin layer of this and by the from Arabia by the Dutch between 1680 and tough membrane which closely envelopes both. 1690, and it was thence extended throughout Sometimes one seed is abortive, and the other the East India islands. In 1715 Louis XIV. becomes round. This is the case with the received from the magistrates of Amsterdam a Wynaad coffee from India, and the so-called fine coffee tree, then bearing both green and "male berry" coffee. As the fruit dries, ripe fruit. This, according to Du Tour, was the pulp forms a sort of shell or pod, which the stock of all the West India coffee. The is removed by a process of curing in order Dutch introduced its cultivation into Surinam to prepare the seed for market. In the West in 1718. (See H. Welter, Essai sur l'histoire du Indies the fruit is picked by hand at inter- café, Paris, 1868).-The raw coffee beans are vals during the seasons of harvest; but in tough and horny, difficult to reduce to powder, Arabia, where no rains prevail which would and consequently require a preparatory roasting, beat it from the trees, it is allowed to remain that water may take up their soluble ingredients. till ready to fall, and is then shaken off upon Even after this the hardness of the fragments cloths spread upon the ground. Its perfect is such that the genuine particles may by this ripeness may be one reason of its superior quality be distinguished from those of other quality. It is next dried in the shade, and the substances used as adulterants. The average pulp is afterward removed by hand. In the composition of raw coffee, as determined by M. East and West Indies and South America the Payen, is in 100 parts: curing is usually performed by exposing a layer Cellulose.. of the fruit several inches in thickness to the heat of the sun, so that fermentation takes place. When the moisture has disappeared, the dried fruit is passed between wooden rollers, and sometimes pounded in wooden mortars, and the pulp is then washed away. The tough membrane is separated after the seeds are dry by a similar process with a heavy pair of rollers. The chaff is next removed by win- Some authorities state that it contains from 6 nowing. From Ethiopia the use of coffee is to 8 per cent. of cane sugar in the roasting said to have been introduced into Persia as this must be nearly or quite all converted into early as A. D. 875, and into Arabia from the caramel. The most important principles are latter country or from Africa about the 15th the caffeic acid, resembling in its astringent century. The earliest written accounts of character, and also in containing much gluten, the use of coffee are by Arabian writers of the tannin of tea; the alkaloid, caffeine, which this period; and it appears that in the city is identical with the theine of tea; and the of Aden it became in the latter half of this fragrant volatile oil, called caffeone. This oil century a very popular drink, first with law- is distinguished by the microscope in minute yers, studious persons, and those whose occu- drops in the cells or between the outer mempations required wakefulness at night, and brane and the body of the seed, and may be soon after with all classes. Its use gradually taken up by distillation with water. Roasting extended to other cities, and to those on the disperses it through the solid substance, and in eastern shores of the Mediterranean. It is said part or wholly expels it, if the process is pushto have been publicly sold in Constantinople in ed too far. The caffeic acid, especially, is mod1554, and to have found its way thence to ified by roasting, and is supposed by chemists Venice in 1615. Rauwolf, a German (in 1582) to afford the greater portion of the flavor and is said to be the first European who makes peculiar properties of the coffee. The propormention of it. The plant is described in the tion of caffeine is only about one half that of works De Plantis Ægypti and De Medicina theine in an equal weight of tea. (See CAFEgyptiorum of Prospero Alpini, 1591 and FEINE.) Coffee when roasted loses its hygro1592. Burton in his "Anatomy of Melan-scopic water, which should first be allowed to

VOL. V.-2

Water.

Fat....

Glucose, dextrine, and organic acid.

Legumine and caseine.

Other nitrogenous substances..
Caffeine (free)..

34.00 12.00

10 to 13.00

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15.50

10.00

3:00

0.80

3.5 to 5.00 0.001

Caffetannate of caffeine and potassium.
Viscid essential oil (insoluble in water)..
Aromatic oils, some lighter, others heavier than water. 0.002

Ash..

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6.70

escape at a moderate heat from an open vessel. | ployed. The northern limit of the coffee-conThe process may then be continued at a higher suming portion of the world is about 60°. temperature in a vessel closed to prevent the -The best coffee of commerce is the Mocha, escape of the aroma, and constantly agitated and next to this is the Java. The seeds of the to avoid charring the grains and expelling the former are small and of a dark yellow color; oil, by which its bitter quality is made to pre- those of Java and the East Indies are larger dominate and the aromatic is lost; a slight ex- and of a paler yellow; while those of the West cess of heat injures the quality of the coffee. Indies and Brazil have a bluish or greenish The process should be stopped when the beans gray tint. The Mocha coffee is grown in the are of a chestnut brown; they have then lost province of Yemen, in Arabia; but much of about 20 per cent. in weight and gained 50 per the coffee sold under that name is produced in cent. in bulk. When removed from the fire, the East Indies and sent to Mocha, where it is the vessel should be kept closed until cool, that reshipped, while no inconsiderable portion of the aromatic vapor may be reabsorbed as much it comes from Africa and Brazil. Java coffee is as possible. After roasting, it deteriorates by distinguished into pale yellow, the newest and exposure, and should therefore be soon used, cheapest, and brown, which is the oldest and unless kept in tight vessels. It may be injured most esteemed. These varieties depend on the by absorbing the odor of other substances. curing and the age of the coffee. The princiEven the raw coffee is liable to be damaged pal markets for Java coffee are Holland and from this cause, and it is found objectionable the United States. The greatest coffee-produto ship it in vessels that have been previously cing country is Brazil, more than half the freighted with sugar; a few bags of pepper coffee consumed in the world being produced have spoiled a whole cargo of coffee. Freshly there. It is the great commercial staple of the roasted and ground coffee tied up in linen has empire, and its principal market is the United been found to ignite spontaneously. After States. Besides the provinces adjacent to Rio roasting, the coffee is ground to powder. Boil- de Janeiro, the coffee plant flourishes in the ing, if continued, will cause a loss of the aroma, shade of the Amazon forests, and, with modand increase the bitterness; hence an infusion erate care, yields two annual crops; and the obtained by steeping is preferable to a decoc- Ceará coffee, much esteemed, grows on the tion, but the water should remain in contact mountain slopes, at an elevation of from 2,000 with the coffee long enough to extract the to 3,000 feet above the sea. In the province greater portion of its agreeable qualities, which of Pará the coffee plant is seen growing on is not the case in the use of the percolating almost every roadside, thicket, or waste. The apparatus introduced by Count Rumford, and coffee of Brazil has little reputation, and is afterward variously modified. In Arabia the even underrated. This is attributed by Prof. berry is coarsely broken in a mortar, boiled Agassiz to the fact that " a great deal of the smartly, and strained before drinking. In Asia best produce of Brazilian plantations is sold coffee is used in a thick decoction. In Sumatra under the name of Java, or as the coffee of the natives make use of the leaf of the plant in- Martinique or Bourbon, while the so-called stead of the seed, ascribing to it more of the Mocha coffee is often nothing but the small bitter and nutritious property. It may also be round beans of the Brazilian plant found at cultivated for the leaves where the production the summits of the branches and very carefully of seed would fail from unsuitableness of cli- selected." The total exports from Rio de Jamate or soil. The leaves are moderately roast-neiro and Santos are stated at 401,127,200 lbs. ed and then rubbed to powder in the hands, in 1869-'70, 468,063,200 lbs. in 1870-'71, and and this powder is used like tea. The infusion 327,226,080 lbs. in 1871-'2. The amount of is said to resemble in taste coffee, as usually coffee received into the United States from Braprepared, and tea combined.—It is a remark-zil has been as follows for a series of years: able fact that the same peculiar principle should exist in three or more vegetable productions, which, though not at all resembling each other in other respects, have been selected as beverages by almost all nations, some adopting one of them and others another. This fact, pointed out by Liebig, as also that this principle furnishes the elements of the bile, is suggestive of a peculiar adaptation of it to the needs of the human system. This principle, called theine in tea and caffeine in coffee, is theobromine in cocoa, and the same is recognized in the guarana officinalis and the ilex Paraguensis, which have long served the aborigines of South America the purposes of tea. Coffee and tea are both used in temperate regions; but in the colder climes tea appears to be generally preferred, and is frequently exclusively em

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In 1868, 15,822,501 lbs. of coffee from Brazil were imported into Great Britain; in 1869, 22,267,953; in 1870, 14,057,893; and in 1871, 23,066,344. Next to Brazil in extent of production is Java. The amount exported from Java and Sumatra to Europe in 1860 is stated at 122,790,923 lbs.; in 1869, 121,655,798; and in 1870, 156,010,912. Almost the entire production of Java is shipped to Holland. The amount thus received into Holland in 1867 was

157,036,316 lbs. ; in 1868, 145,935,724; in
1869, 110,456,626; and for the 11 months end-
ing Nov. 30, 1870, 142,039,928. Great Britain
is the principal market for the coffee produced
in Ceylon, which ranks third as a coffee-pro-
ducing country. In 1860, the amount imported 1868.
from Ceylon into Great Britain was 63,244,900
lbs., valued at £1,599,293; in 1868, 101,929,153
lbs., valued at £2,986,479; in 1869, 95,103,970
lbs., valued at $2,867,724; in 1870, 97,964,922
lbs., valued at £2,790,898; and in 1871, 90,-
680,570 lbs., valued at £2,623,263.-The most
extensive coffee-consuming countries are the
United States, Great Britain, France, and Ger-
many. In the United States, according to the
report of the chief of the bureau of com-
merce and navigation, the consumption for
several years, ending June 30, has been as fol-
lows:

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The amount of coffee imported into France for
home consumption was 104,268,255 lbs. in
1867, 115,380,744 lbs. in 1868, 110,996,852
lbs. in 1869, and for the six months ending
June 30, 1870, 59,913,571 lbs. From 1789 to
1830 a duty of 2 cents per pound was im-
posed upon coffee imported into the United
States. In the latter year this duty was re-
moved, but again imposed in 1861. It varied
from 3 to 5 cents per pound until July 1, 1872,
when the importation of coffee was again made
free. An infusion of roasted coffee contains
three constituents which differ somewhat in
their action. These are tannic acid, caffeine,
and empyreumatic products of the albumen
and legumine of the raw berry. Only a small
portion of the caffeine is destroyed in the
roasting, and that is mostly converted into
methylamine. (See CAFFEINE.
c.) Coffee in-
creases the frequency of the pulse and activity
of the mind, which is often so prolonged as to
prevent sleep. Large doses produce palpita-
tion of the heart, and habitual coffee drinkers
are liable to have the digestion considerably
impaired. In the absence of belladonna, it
may be used as an antidote in cases of poison-
ing by opium, a strong infusion of the burnt
berry being used and given in doses according
to the symptoms. It is sometimes given to
relieve vomiting, particularly of a nervous
character. Roasted coffee neutralizes noxious
odors, and is antiseptic in a mild degree. It is
best applied by first drying and crushing the
raw beans, and then roasting the powder at a
moderate heat to a dark brown color, when it
may be sprinkled about or simply exposed on a
plate where the effluvium exists. It is often
adulterated (see ADULTERATION, and CHIC-
CORY), and this may be suspected when water
is quickly colored by it, and the presence of
chiccory or burnt sugar inferred. One of the
readiest means of detecting foreign vegetable
Venetian red or native sesquioxide of iron may
or animal matter is by using the microscope.
be detected in the ashes either by inspection or
the application of chemical reagents.

COFFEE. I. A S. E. county of Georgia, bounded N. by the Ocmulgee river, S. W. by the Allapaha, and intersected by the Satilla and its branches; area, 1,000 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 3,192, of whom 678 were colored. The surface is level and sandy. The Macon and Brunswick railroad touches the N. E. corner, and the Brunswick and Albany railroad passes

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The imports and the quantities retained for through the S. part. The chief productions in home consumption have been:

1870 were 49,022 bushels of Indian corn, 19,

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