frontiers; 5361 sq. miles, 147,300 inhabitants.-III. The kingdom of Dalmatia, with Ragusa and Cattaro, containing 5827 square miles, and 320,000 inhabitants. IV. The Lombardo-Venetian kingdom; 17,608 square miles, 4,176,000 inhabitants. -V. The kingdom of Galicia and Lodomiria, with the province of Bukowina; 32,272 square miles, 4,075,000 inhabitants. -Thus the whole Austrian monarchy contains more than 256,399 square miles, and upwards of 29 million inhabitants. By the census of 1826, the population is estimated at 30 millions. Besides this, the collateral lines of A. have many valuable possessions:-Tuscany and Este (Modena and Massa), containing 10,489 square iniles, and 1,618,500 inhabitants. The principal nations of A. are, 1. the Sclavonians, 13,400,000; 2. the Germans, 5,900,000; 3. the Italians, 4,350,000; 4. the Magyars, or Hungarians, 4,000,000; 5. the Walachians, 1,700,000; 6. the Jews, 450,000; 7. the Zigeunes, or Gipsies, 110,000; 8. the Armenians, 13,052; 9. the Greeks, 3910; together with Clementines, Turks, Albanese, French, &c. The most populous part of Austria is the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom: the population is 237 to a square mile. Next to this are Bohemia and Moravia, above and below the Ens. The smallest population is found in the military districts on the frontiers, Carinthia and Tyrol, Salzburg and Dalmatia. According to the local returns, published by the geographical board of Vienna in 1822, edited by colonel Fallon, and prepared in the preceding year, the rate of the annual increase of the population appears to be as follows:

In Hungary and Transylvania, . . . 145 Austria Proper, Stiria and Transylvania, 2130 Bohemia, Galicia, Illyria, and Moravia, 210

Dalmatia, Tyrol, and the Lom

bardo-Venetian kingdom,.. 21 This statement gives an increase, in 12 years, on the population of 1815, calcuIated at 27,000,000, of more than 27 per cent.; in fact, nearly 7,000,000. Different authorities agree, up to the year 1821, in a rate of increase, which, if continued to 1828, would make that increase more than 7,000,000. The monarchy numbers 777 cities, 635 suburbs, 2224 market-towns, and 69,105 villages. The most populous cities are, Vienna, Milan, Venice, Lemberg, Padua, and Debreczyn 'population, 41,175.) Of the numerous

navigable rivers, the largest are, the Danube, Ens, Morawa or Marsch, Leytha, Raab, Drave, Save, the Po, the Elbe, the Meldau, Eger, Oder, Vistula, and Dniester. Thirty canals, seven of them very large, have been constructed, during the reign of the present emperor, for the promotion of trade.-The largest lakes are, Neusidle, Platten, Palitsch, Cirknitz and Lago Maggiore.-The mountains are, 1. The Alps, which present a surface of 48,397 square miles: the Ortlesspitze is 14,466 feet high; the Great Glockner, 12,239; Hohenwart, 10,392; Wiesbachhorn and Hochhorn, 10,600-11,000; Terglou, 9,744; Watzmann. 9,600; Frennkogal, 9,000. 2. The Sudetes (white meadows, 4,500 feet high), Paschkopol. 3. The Carpathian mountains.-The climate is different in different parts of the empire.-The Austrian mines and washings yield, annually, of gold, 3,900 marks; of silver, 108,000 marks; upwards of 2,200 tons of copper; of tin, 100; of iron, 69,000; of mercury, 281; of cinnabar, 435; cobalt, 88 tons; calamine and zinc, 386 tons; arsenic, chrome, tellurium, uranium, antimony (383 tons), manganese, bismuth, loadstone, precious stones, marble, porcelain, meerschaum, coal, sulphur, salt, &c. -There are also 600 mineral springs in the empire, of which Bohemia alone contains 150; the most celebrated are at Carlsbad, Teplitz, Franzensbad, Marienbad, Seidschütz, Bilin, Baden, Gastein, Meadia in the Bannat, Albano in Italy, &c.-Austria furnishes wheat, and similar kinds of grain, in abundance; also maize, rice, pulse, fruits, including the best southern fruits, oil, &c., wine, hops, saffron, tobacco, hemp and flax, woad, various woods, black-cattle, buffaloes, horses, asses and mules, sheep, goats, swine, poultry, wild beasts, fishes, pearl-oysters, bees (which yield, annually, 1200 tons of wax and 19,500 tons of honey), silk (2,570,000 pounds). Prince Liechtenstein, at Eisgrub, in Moravia, has the largest plantation of foreign woods in Europe. Every branch of agriculture is prosecuted with care and skill, and the raising of sheep is particularly attended to. There are still, however, in Hungary, 2119 square miles of morass. The most fertile and best cultivated part of the empire is the Lombardo-Venetian territories. The manufacture of silk, in this district, has also been highly improved by count Dandolo. The manufactures yield, annually 1425 million florins, convention-money. They consist of watches and clocks, porcelain, mirrors, and brass, iron and steel,

linen, cotton, paper, tobacco, sugar, wool, silk, leather, bleached wax. The trade has increased since the recovery of Italy. The exports of the country amount to more than 36 million florins, conventionmoney (see Money); and the imports to 44 millions. The principal sea-ports are Trieste, Venice, and Fiume: other places of trade are Vienna, Prague, Pest, Lemberg, Brody and Gratz. The bank of Vienna affords the most important support to the commercial interests of the state: the same advantage is derived from the Austrian national company of commerce, lately erected for the sale of merchandise, and the promotion of trade.— The prevailing religion is the Roman Catholic. The bishoprics in Germany and Hungary are richly endowed, particularly the archbishoprics of Gran, Colocza, Olműtz, Erlau, &c. The whole number is 14. In Lemberg and in Venice there is an Armenian Catholic archbishop, and in Venice a Catholic patriarch. The Greek church is under the archbishop of Carlovitza. The Lutherans and Calvinists have consistories and superintendents; and in Hungary and Transylvania, their civil rights are nearly equal to those of the Roman Catholics. There are also Mennonites, Mohammedans, &c., in various parts of the empire. The number of Catholics in A. is estimated at 23,978,000; members of the Greek church, 2,814,378; Calvinists, 1,584,716; Lutherans, 1,119,800; Unitarians, 49,000. -Universities are established at Vienna, Prague, Pest, Lemberg, and Pavia. There are lyceums at Lintz, Gratz, Brünn, Grosswardein; a mining academy at Schemnitz; a medical school at Vienna; an academy for painting, sculpture, architecture and engraving at Vienna; a library; a gallery of paintings; collections of medals and other antiquities, which are deserving of notice.-The government is a monarchy; in Hungary and Transylvania, a limited monarchy: in the other territories of the empire, the estates (of which there are four in Tyrol, including the peasantry) are convened to grant the supplies called for to meet the expenses of government. But the system of imposts and customs, existing between the different districts, is an impediment to commerce. The law of primogeniture prevails in regard to the succession to the throne. There are seven knightly orders,-1. that of the golden fleece; 2. of the starry cross, for ladies of princely or ancient noble families; (the following being also orders of merit); 3. the milita

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ry order of Maria Theresa; 4. the royal order of St. Stephen, in Hungary; 5. the imperial Austrian order of Leopold, which has existed since 1808; 6. the order of the iron crown (renewed in 1816); 7. the order of Elizabeth Theresa, for officers only, who have risen, at least, to the rank of colonels. There are, also, in Austria, a. the ancient imperial Teutonic order, of which an archduke is appointed grandmaster by the emperor; b. the spiritual order of St. John, which has a grand-priorate in Bohemia, and several commanderies in Upper and Lower Austria; e the order of the cross, with the red star. At the head of the administration, under the direction of the emperor, stands the privy-counsellor for home affairs. There are two departments of government, one for foreign and the other for domestic affairs, both under the direction of a minister. The judicial system is mild and well-regulated. The civil code, completed July 1, 1811, is very good. The courts were much improved as early as 1781. A general penal code was adopted Jan. 1, 1804. These laws are in force only for the German, Galician, and Italian territories, for Dalmatia, and the military districts. The revenue of the state (including the extraordinary income) is estimated at 220 million florins of silver, and the interest of the public debt at 22 millions yearly. By the loan of 1827, the public debt was increased to 680 inillion florins. This estimate is exclusive of 98,025,413 florins in redemption and anticipation certificates (einlösungs und anticipations scheine), which were in circulation June 30, 1827. The standing army, in time of peace, is composed of 271,400 men, including 39,000 horse, and 17,790 artillery. The supplementary troops, the reserve, and the militia, together, comprise about 479,000 men. The naval force consists of three ships of the line, six frigates, three corvettes, three brigs and four schooners. There are, also, in the empire, 25 fortresses, and 59 fortified towns.-On the history of the Austrian monarchy, see the works of Genersich (Vienna, 8 vols. 1817); Coxe (History of the House of Austria, London, 1807, 3 vols. 4to.); J. B. Schels's History of Austria (Vienna, 1819-27, 9 vols., to the time of Joseph II). In regard to the statistics of this country, the following works are val uable:-Darstellung des Fabrik- und Gewerbwesens in seinem gegenw. Zustande: vorzügl. in technischer mercantil. und statisch. Bezieh. und mit Berücksicht des Fabrik- und Gewerbwesens im Estr. Kaiser

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staate, herausgeg von Steph. Edl. von Kees. Vienna, 1824. Die Douanen und Quarantaineverfassung des Estreich. Kaiserstaats, in ihrer gegenw. Gestalt von A. A. Kronegger, Vienna, 1824. Handbuch für Reisende in dem Estreich. Kaiserstaate von R. E. von Jenny: to which Hormayr's Archiv., 1824, is a useful supplement. Gelehrten und Schriftsteller-Lexicon der Estreich. Monarchie von D. Sartori, which begins in 1801, and forms a valuable addition to De Luca's Gelehrtes Estreich.

AUTENRIETH, John Henry Ferdinand, chancellor of the university of Tübingen, and professor of medicine in the same institution, was born in the year 1772, and early evinced decided talent in the department of natural science. His imagination was lively, and his memory remarkably tenacious. After he had received his doctorate, he visited North America, During his travels in this part of the world, he was attacked by the yellow fever in a solitary place, at a distance from human assistance, and saved his life by bold and copious bleeding. After his return, he was appointed professor of medicine, particularly of anatomy and clinical medicine, at Tübingen. Here he labored zealously. His lectures were eloquent, and his attention to the sick unremitted. He published, likewise, several periodicals, partly alone, partly in connexion with Reil. The king of Wurtemburg appointed him chancellor of the university of Tübingen. AUTEUIL; a small town of France, at the entrance of the wood of Boulogne, somewhat less than a mile from Paris. Men of literary reputation have often resided there. The country-seat of the poet Boileau is still shown there, where the beaux esprits of France often banqueted. On a certain time, heated with wine at a supper, the literati complained of the degeneracy of the age, and lamented their misfortune in having been born at such a period. All agreed to plunge into the neighboring Seine, and the flower of the French writers were already on their way to the river, when the thought struck Molière, that such an act, by such men, ought not to be performed in the darkness of night. The companions stopped, found he was in the right, and agreed to drown themselves at day-break, after drinking the remainder of their wine. The ingenious Andrieux brought this anecdote upon the stage in the piece Molière avec ses Amis, ou le Souper à Auteuil. While the physician Gendron was in possession of this house, he was visited by his friend Voltaire, who wrote the following not

very poetical inscription for it:-C'est ic le vrai Parnasse des vrais enfans d'Apollon.-Sous le nom de Boileau ces lieux virent Horace; Esculape y parait sous celui de Gendron. Madame Helvetius, his widow, finally occupied it. Her evening parties here were celebrated. All who were distinguished in the walks of literature or of active life, were always wel come, whether French or foreigners. All were without restraint. Her society was therefore called la société libre des égoistes. In 1798 or 1799, Bonaparte here became acquainted with several men of liberal minds, and often used to walk with the celebrated owner in her garden. She soon perceived his soaring ambition, and said to him one day with a smile, Vous ne vous doutez pas combien on peut trouver de bonheur dans trois arpents de terre.-The monuments of several illustrious men are to be seen in the churchyard at A.; among others, that of Nicolai, president of the chambre des comptes, and the chancellor d'Aguesseau, remarkable as a great civilian and advocate of the rights of men.

AUTHENTICS; a name applied, in the civil law, to an extract from the Novels (see Corpus Juris), by which a law of the code is either changed or entirely abolished. They were extracted by the first doctors of the law, in the middle ages, from a manuscript copy of the Novels (liber authenticus), put among the altered passages of the code, and have thus remained in the editions of the Corpus Juris. Some laws, moreover, of the empe rors Frederic I and II of Germany have been introduced in this way.

AUTO DA FÈ. (See Inquisition.)

AUTOCHTHONES (from the Greek) signifies men produced from the ground which they inhabit. Several ancient nations assumed this name, to indicate the antiquity of their origin; e. g. the Athenians.

AUTOCRATOR (from Greek avròs, himself, and xpáros, power); a name given to the Athenian general, when, in particular cases, unlimited authority over the troops was intrusted to him, and he was not bound to give account of his proceedings, Thus Aristides was an autocrator in the battle of Platea. Пpeoßes auтoкpáтopes were Athenian ambassadors with full powers, corresponding to our plenipotentiaries. In modern times, the word autocrat is used, in politics, for a ruler with absolute power. Thus the emperor of Russia is styled autocrat of all the Russias. Some writers on morals apply this term to

man, to represent his power over his own conduct.

AUTODIDACTI (Greek aurds, himself, and didácxw, I teach); those who have obtained knowledge and skill in any art or science, without the personal instruction of others. AUTOGRAPHS (Gr.); manuscripts written by the author himself, in distinction from copies. They are more highly esteemed than the latter, not only as interesting relics, but also as more correct and free from faults than those copied by another hand. Some collections of autographs of famous men are very interesting.

AUTOMATON (from Gr. abróμatos, spontaneous); a self-moving machine, without life. Machines of this kind are kept in motion by means of springs or weights. When they represent human figures, they are called androides; but clocks, watches, &c. are also automata. We find very early mention of them. Homer describes Vulcan fabricating tripods, which moved on living wheels, instinct with spirit. The celebrated statue of Memnon, which emitted musical sounds at sunrise, the walking statues of Dædalus, the flying dove of Archytas (q. v.), are instances of ancient skill in this respect. In modern times, friar Bacon (q. v.) constructed a brazen head which spoke. Regiomontanus (q. v.) made a flying eagle, and an iron fly, which, after making the tour of the room, returned to its master. Albertus Magnus (q. v.), in the 13th century, spent thirty years in constructing a human figure, which advanced to the door when any one knocked, opened it, and saluted the visitor. In the water-clock presented to Charlemagne by Haroun al Raschid, twelve doors in the dial opened respectively at the hour which they represented: they continued open till noon, when 12 knights issued out on horseback, paraded round the dial, and then, returning, shut themselves in again. Camus constructed an ingenious toy for Louis XIV, consisting of a carriage drawn by two horses, containing a little figure of a lady, with a coachman and attendants. The coachman smacked his whip; the horses moved their legs naturally; and, when the carriage arrived opposite to the king's seat, it stopped; the page stepped down, and opened the door; the lady alighted, and presented a petition to Louis. The flute-player, the tambour-player, and the wonderful duck of Vaucanson (q. v.), are celebrated for the astonishing ingenuity displayed in their construction. The two brothers Droz (q. v.) have executed some admirable works of the kind. One

of them is a child, sitting at a desk, who dips his pen into the ink, shakes it, and writes, in French, whatever is dictated to him. This must be done, of course, by human intervention. A vase, presented to Bonaparte, when first consul, on being touched, exhibited a palm-tree, under which a shepherdess was spinning. The chess-player of von Kempelen (q. v.) has been supposed to be moved by a man concealed in the chest. The speaking machine of the same artist, the fluteplayer of Siegmeier, the trumpeters of Maelzel and Kaufmann, deserve mention among the later automata. One of the most ingenious automatical mechanists of the present day is the Swiss Maillardet. He constructed a female figure, which performs 18 tunes on the pianoforte; the bosom heaves, the eyes move, and the natural motions of the fingers are performed. The action of this machine continues an hour. Besides this figure, there is a magician, who answers any question taken from 20 medallions. The medallion selected is placed in a drawer, the magical books are gravely consulted, and the magician then strikes with his wand against a door, which opens, and displays an appropriate answer. His other automata are, a boy, which draws and writes; a little figure, a few inches in height, which dances to music produced in a glass case, in which it is enclosed; a humming-bird, which issues from a box, sings, and returns to the box again; a steel spider; a hissing serpent, &c. An engine has been made by Mr. Babbage capable of computing any table by the method of differences. The greater the number of differences, the more it will outstrip the most rapid calculator.

AUTOPSY (from Greek, avròs, himself, and is, sight); observation which one makes himself, in contradistinction from knowledge which we get from the accounts of others.

AUTUMN; that one of the seasons, which, in the northern temperate zone, begins when the sun, in its apparent descent to the southern hemisphere, touches the equator. The end of autumn is at the time of the sun's greatest south declination, or when he enters Capricorn. According to our computation of time, the beginning of autumn is Sept. 23, when, for the second time in the year, the days and nights are equal; and the end is Dec. 21, at the time of the shortest day. The autumn of the southern hemisphere takes place at the time of our spring. From this astronomical autumn the physical or

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popular autumn differs according to the climate. Autumnal equinox. (See Equinox.)-Autumnal point is called, by astronomers, that point where the equator cuts the ecliptic: the sun reaches it Sept. 23. It is said to be at the beginning of Libra, and is continually marked so, notwithstanding the point has long since receded from this constellation, and is now near the stars of the left shoulder of Virgo. It is opposite to the vernal point; therefore its ascension amounts to 180°, and its longitude also to as many, or six signs; its declination and latitude = 0. AUVERGNE; a ci-devant province of France, which took its name from the ancient inhabitants, called Averni. It was surrounded by Velay and Forez, Limousin, Bourbonnais, Berry, Rouergue and Gevaudan, in the heart of France. Upper and Lower Auvergne contained together, on 500 square leagues, 800,000 inhabitants. The mountains of Auvergne are among the most noted of France. The northern part is called Puy de Dôme; the southern, Puy de Cantal; while the centre is formed of the Mont d'Or. The revolution divided this province into three departments. (See Department.)Auvergne was celebrated in the time of ancient Gaul, and has always remained a very important part of France.

AUVERNAS; a deep-colored wine, made of black raisins, so called at Orleans. It is not fit to drink until a year old, but, if kept two or three years, becomes excellent.

AVA, or AUNGWA; a town in Asia, formerly the capital of Ava, or Birmah, on the Irrawaddy, 4 miles W. S. W. of Ummerapoora, 500 miles E. Calcutta; lon. 95° 58′ E.; lat. 21° 51' N. It was divided into the upper and lower city; both fortified. The lower was about four miles in circumference, protected by a wall 30 feet high, with a deep and broad ditch; an embankment of earth supports the wall within. The upper town, which may be called the citadel, does not exceed a mile in circumference, and is much stronger and more compact than the other. The walls are now mouldering, and a great part of the timber of which the houses were built has been carried away to be used in a new town, called Ummeranoora. Numerous temples are falling, and the few houses built of brick become the abode of bats. In the temple of Logathero Praw is still to be seen a gigantic image of Godama, of marble. The height of the idol, from the top of the head to the pedestal on which it sits, is

nearly 24 feet; the head is eight feet in diameter, and across the breast it measures 10 feet. The Birmans assert that it is composed of one entire block of marble; nor can any junction be perceived. (For the country of Ava, see Birmah.) A short time ago, Mr. Crawford's Embassy to Ava, one vol., 4to., was advertised in the London papers as on the eve of appearance, which must contain much valuable information.

AVA-AVA; a plant so called by the inhabitants of Otaheite, who make an intoxicating juice out of it. Their chiefs vie with each other in drinking the greatest number of draughts, as the German students do in drinking beer.

AVADONTAS; a sect of Bramins, who, in austerity, surpass all the rest. They even reject the earthen vessels to hold provisions, and the stick to lean on-luxuries which the other sects allow themselves. Some Avadontas go perfectly naked: when hungry, they beg for something to eat: others go to the holy rivers, and there expect the peasants to feed them.

AVAL, or BAHHREIN; the largest of the Bahhrein islands in the gulf of Persia, 30 miles in length, and 12 wide, where it is broadest. Besides the fortified town of Bahhrein, it contains some poor villages. Lon. 48° 4' E.; lat. 26° 36′ Ñ.

AVALANCHES (in German, Lavinen, or Lauwinen); large masses of snow, which roll down from the mountains, causing great damage by their fall. There are three kinds. The wind or dust avalanches are so called because they are occasioned by the wind, which carries along the fresh fallen snow, and throws it, in the form of dust, into the valleys. The rapidity with which they come would render this kind the most dangerous of all, were it not for their great lightness, which renders it easy to extricate one's self from them. There have been instances of people remaining 24 hours under such avalanches without being suffocated. The second kind are called mountain, snow, hail or thunder avalanches (Schrund-Lavinen). These are not blown off by the wind, but fall by their own weight, bringing down with them all the ground on which they lie, together with the trees, rocks, &c., which are there. They gen erally fall in the spring, when the increasing warmth has rendered the snow more damp and heavy. Their fall makes mountain and valley tremble, and is accompanied with a noise like thunder. The third kind, earth avalanches, or land